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Terrorism in the modern senseSee the ",'' January 17 , 2006 . Most Definitions Of Terrorism include only those acts which are intended to create fear or "terror", are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or utterly disregard the safety of Non-combatants . Many definitions also include only acts of Unlawful violence. As a form of Unconventional Warfare , terrorism is sometimes used when attempting to force political change by convincing a government or population to agree to demands to avoid future harm or fear of harm, destabilizing an existing government, motivating a disgruntled Population to join an Uprising , escalating a conflict in the hopes of disrupting the Status Quo , expressing a grievance, or drawing attention to a cause. Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organizations in furthering their objectives; both right-wing and left-wing political parties, Nationalistic , and religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments.1 The presence of non-state actors in widespread armed conflict has created controversy regarding the application of the Laws Of War . An International Round Table on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing Terror (2004) hosted by Strategic Foresight Group recommended that a distinction should be made between terrorism and acts of terror. While acts of terror are criminal acts as per the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 and Domestic Jurisprudence of almost all countries in the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the perpetrators of acts of terror themselves and their motives. There is disagreement on definitions of terrorism. However, there is an intellectual Consensus globally, that acts of terror should not be accepted under any circumstances. This is reflected in all important conventions including the United Nations Counter Terrorism strategy, the decisions of the Madrid Conference on terrorism, the Strategic Foresight Group and ALDE Round Tables at the European Parliament . OFFICIAL DEFINITIONS See Also: Definition of terrorism See Also: State terrorism after the September 11, 2001 Attacks described by the United Nations Security Council as "horrifying terrorist attacks"]] The word "terrorism" was first used in reference to the Reign Of Terror during the French Revolution . A 1988 study by the United States Army found that more than one hundred definitions of the word exist and have been used.Dr. Jeffrey Record, Bounding the Global War on Terrorism (PDF) Terrorism is a crime in all countries where such acts occur, and is defined by statute — see '' Definition Of Terrorism '' for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of Legitimate Use Of Violence by civilians against an invader in an Occupied Country and would, thus, label all Resistance Movement s as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the distinction is a Political judgment.Ali Khan, A LEGAL THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM Published in 19 Connecticut Law Review 945-972(1987) In November 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as any act: "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."In a commentary issued by the UN it states that ''The second part of the report titled "Larger Freedom." by Kofi Annan, Secretary General, United Nations at the Security Council Meeting on 17 March , 2005 , entitled "Freedom from Fear" backs the definition of terrorism - an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community - as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."'' KEY CRITERIA Official definitions determine counter-terrorism policy and are often developed to serve it. Most government definitions outline the following key criteria: target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or legality of the act. Terrorism is also often recognizable by a following statement from the perpetrators. Violence – According to Walter Laqueur of the , Riot , Organized Crime , or even a simple Assault . Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a Violent Crime , but some have described property destruction by the Earth Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front as terrorism. Psychological impact and fear – The attack was carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a “performance,” a product of internal logic, devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show their power and to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government's legitimacy, while increasing the legitimacy of the given Terrorist Organization and/or Ideology behind a terrorist act.Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. ''Terror in the Mind of God''. University of California Press. Ch. 7 pp. 125-135 Perpetrated for a Political Goal – Something all terrorist attacks have in common is their perpetration for a political purpose. Terrorism is a political tactic, not unlike letter writing or protesting, that is used by activists when they believe no other means will effect the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic" Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. ''Terror in the Mind of God.'' University of California Press. Ch 8-10. struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians. Deliberate targeting of non-combatants – It is commonly held that the distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its intentional and specific selection of Civilian s as direct targets. Much of the time, the victims of terrorism are targeted not because they are threats, but because they are specific "symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings" that tie into a specific view of the world that the terrorist possess. Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting a message out to an audience, or otherwise accomplishing their political end.Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. ''Terror in the Mind of God''. University of California Press. Ch. 7 pp. 127-128 Unlawfulness or illegitimacy – Some official (notably government) definitions of terrorism add a criterion of illegitimacy or unlawfulnessFBI, Terrorism in the United States 1999 to distinguish between actions authorized by a "legitimate" government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. Using this criterion, actions that would otherwise qualify as terrorism would not be considered terrorism if they were government sanctioned. For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a "legitimate" government. This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted, because: it denies the existence of State Terrorism ; the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term. Ask Oxford Dictionary Cambridge International Dictionary of English Dictionary.com Online Etymology Dictionary For these reasons this criterion is not universally accepted. Most dictionary definitions of the term do not include this criterion. PEJORATIVE USE The terms "terrorism" and "terrorist" (someone who engages in terrorism) carry a strong negative connotation. These terms are often used as political labels to condemn violence or threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, or unjustified. Those labeled "terrorists" rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other euphemistic terms or terms specific to their situation, such as: Separatist , Freedom Fighter , liberator, Revolutionary , Vigilante , Militant , Paramilitary , Guerrilla , Rebel , Jihad i or Mujaheddin , or Fedayeen , or any similar-meaning word in other languages. In his book "''Inside Terrorism''" Bruce Hoffman wrote in ''Chapter One: Defining Terrorism'' that
The difference between the words "terrorist" or "terrorism" and the terms above can be summed up by the Institute For Conflict Analysis And Resolution , Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003 Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University , defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and goes on to say: Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called terrorist by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called statesmen by similar organizations. Two examples are , January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin" NEWS: World: Middle East: Sharon's legacy does not include peace BBC website "Ariel Sharon will be compared to Menachem Begin, another warrior turned statesman, who gave up the Sinai and made peace with Egypt."Lord Desai Hansard, House of Lords 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "''However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin — to give just three examples — were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom.''" BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures." BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman" Sometimes states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether members of a certain organization are terrorists. For example for many years some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the School of Law Many times the term "terrorism" and " Extremism " are interchangeably used. However, there is a significant difference between the two. Terrorism essentially threat or act of physical Violence . Extremism involves using non-physical instruments to mobilise minds to achieve political or ideological ends. For instance, Al Qaeda is involved in terrorism. The Iranian Revolution of 1979 is a case of extremism. A global research report An Inclusive World (2007) asserts that extremism poses a more serious threat than terrorism in the decades to come. For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality are extremely careful in their use of the term.23 TYPES OF TERRORISM In the spring of 1975, the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee was entitled ''Disorders and Terrorism'', produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976) The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.
In an analysis prepared for U.S. IntelligenceHudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press,2002 four typologies are mentioned.
DEMOCRACY AND DOMESTIC TERRORISM The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is complex. Research shows that such terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom and that the nations with the least terrorism are the most democratic nations.4567 However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy- a state with a considerable degree of political freedom. The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 80s and 90s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1-19. Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco , the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori , the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa . Democracies such as the United States , Israel , and the Philippines also have experienced domestic terrorism. While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a perceived dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties. This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state.shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp467. PERPETRATORS Acts of terrorism can be carried out by individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive Cells , highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as 9/11 , the London Underground Bombing , and the 2002 Bali Bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, comprised of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient Telecommunications to succeed where others had failed. Sageman, Mark. 2004. "Social Networks and the Jihad". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ch. 5 pp. 166-167 Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a Terrorist Profile to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Terrorist groups See Also: Terrorist groups State sponsors See Also: State-sponsored terrorism See Also: State terrorism False flag A state can sponsor terrorism by funding a terrorist organization, harboring terrorism, and also using state resources, such as the military, to directly perform acts of terrorism. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism or not vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such. TACTICS See Also: Tactics of terrorism Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity. They usually use Explosives or Poison , but there is also concern about terrorist attacks using Weapons Of Mass Destruction . Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant "undercover" agents, and raise money from supporters or through Organized Crime . Communication may occur through modern Telecommunications , or through old-fashioned methods such as Courier s. CAUSES The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political Conflict . The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:
Terrorism is a form of Asymmetric Warfare , and is more common when direct Conventional Warfare either cannot be (due to differentials in available forces) or is not being used to resolve the underlying conflict. In some cases, the rationale for a terrorist attack may be uncertain (as in the many attacks for which no group or individual claims responsibility) or unrelated to any large-scale social conflict (such as the Sarin Gas Attack On The Tokyo Subway by Aum Shinrikyo ). A team of researchers from all continents has analysed causes of present day terrorism. It has reached the conclusions that terrorism all over the world functions like an economic Market . There is demand for Terrorists placed by Greed or grievances. Supply is driven by relative deprivation resulting in triple deficits - developmental Deficit , democratic deficit and dignity deficit. Acts of terror take place at the point of intersection between supply and demand. Those placing the demand use Religion and other denominators as vehicles to establish links with those on the supply side. This pattern can be observed in all situations ranging from Colombia to Colombo and the Philippines to the Palestine . RESPONSES TO TERRORISM See Also: Responses to terrorism Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the Political Spectrum and reassessments of Fundamental Values . The term counter-terrorism has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors. Specific types of responses include:
MASS MEDIA Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson . Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51-64 Published by Frank Cass, London. Others consider terrorism itself to be a symptom of a highly controlled mass media, which does not otherwise give voice to alternative viewpoints, a view expressed by Paul Watson who has stated that controlled media is responsible for terrorism, because "you cannot get your information across any other way". Paul Watson's organization Sea Shepherd has itself been branded " Eco-terrorist ", although it claims to have not caused any casualties. The mass media will often censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organisations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. The Weather Underground was a militant US organization which, while causing no casualties, performed terrorist acts to bring media attention to various world political issues. Many of the issues were given brief mentions by news services only in relation to the terrorist acts. HISTORY See Also: History of terrorism The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to January 1795 when it was used by ''The Times'' of London to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club in their rule of post-Revolutionary France, the so-called " Reign Of Terror ". Terrorism First Mention 1795 ]] SEE ALSO
FURTHER READING
UN conventions
News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism
Papers and articles on global terrorism
Papers and articles on terrorism and the United States
Papers and articles on terrorism and Israel
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