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The average age of occurs only irregularly until after this. The average age of menarche has been declining and is continuing to do so. Whether fertility leads to early pregnancy depends on a number of factors, both societal and personal. Worldwide, rates of teenage pregnancy range from 143 per 1000 in sub-Saharan Africa to 2.9 per 1000 in South Korea.Treffers, P.E. (November 22, 2003). Teenage pregnancy, a worldwide problem . ''Nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde, 147(47)'', 2320-5. Retrieved July 7, 2006. UNICEF. (2001). . Retrieved July 7, 2006. Pregnant teenagers face many of the same , 2006 . Data supporting teenage pregnancy as a Social Issue in Developed Countries include lower Education al levels, higher rates of Poverty , and other poorer "life outcomes" in children of teenage mothers. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage, and carries a Social Stigma in many communities and cultures. For these reasons, there have been many studies and campaigns which attempt to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of teenage pregnancies.The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2002). . Retrieved May 27, 2006. In other countries and cultures, particularly in the Developing World , teenage pregnancy is usually within marriage and does not involve a social stigma.Population Council (2006) Unexplored Elements of Adolescence in the Developing World ''Population Briefs'', January 2006, Vol. 12, No. 1. Retrieved April 18, 2007. GLOBAL INCIDENCE See Also: Global incidence of teenage pregnancy A report by , for example, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18.Locoh, Therese. (2000). " Early Marriage And Motherhood In Sub-Saharan Africa ." ''WIN News.'' Retrieved July 7, 2006. In South Africa, it is believed that this problem of teenage pregnancies is the result of introducing child support grant in 1999. In the Indian Subcontinent , early Marriage sometimes means adolescent pregnancy, particularly in Rural regions where the rate is much higher than it is in Urbanized areas. The rate of early marriage and pregnancy has decreased sharply in Indonesia and Malaysia , although it remains relatively high. In the industrialized Asian nations such as South Korea and Singapore , teenage birth rates are among the lowest in the world. Mehta, Suman, Groenen, Riet, & Roque, Francisco. United Nations Social and Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (1998). Adolescents in Changing Times: Issues and Perspectives for Adolescent Reproductive Health in The ESCAP Region . Retrieved July 7, 2006. The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decreasing Total Fertility Rate , an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers. The United Kingdom , which has the highest teenage birth rate in Europe, also has a higher rate of abortion than most European countries. In contrast, most continental Western European countries have very low rates. This is varyingly attributed to good Sex Education and high levels of Contraceptive use (in the case of the Netherlands and Scandinavia ), Traditional Values and Social Stigma tization (in the case of Italy and Spain ) or both (in the case of Switzerland ).UNICEF. (2001). . Retrieved July 7, 2006. The teenage birth rate in teenage birth has also trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15-17) and older (18-19) teens in the period between 1992-2002.Dryburgh, H. (2002). Teenage pregnancy. Health Reports, 12 (1), 9-18; Statistics Canada . (2005). Health Indicators, 2005, 2. Retrieved from Facts and Statistics: Sexual Health and Canadian Youth - Teen Pregnancy Rates CAUSES OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY In some societies, early Marriage and traditional Gender Role s are important factors in the rate of teenage pregnancy. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility. In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities compared to the rate in cities. In societies where adolescent marriage is uncommon, an early age at first intercourse and lack of Contraceptive use may be factors. Beginning Too Soon: Adolescent Sexual Behavior, Pregnancy And Parenthood , US Department of Health and Human Services, Retrieved January 25, 2007 Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned. Teenage Mothers : Decisions and Outcomes - Provides a unique review of how teenage mothers think Policy Studies Institute, University of Westminster, 30 Oct 1998 Adolescent sexual behavior See Also: Adolescent sexuality According to information available from the , 2006 . However, in a on NPR's Fresh Air, September 23, 2003. Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.Slater, Jon. (2000). " Britain: Sex Education Under Fire ." ''The UNESCO Courier.'' Retrieved July 7, 2006. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). What the Polling Data Tell Us: A Summary of Past Surveys on Teen Pregnancy . Retrieved July 13, 2006 However, some recent studies have found that the rate of contraceptive use among teenage girls is roughly the same as that among older women.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6279601.stm] In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use , or intrauterine devices last from a month to years and may prevent pregnancy more effectively in women who have trouble following routines, including many young women. The use of more than one contraceptive measure decreases the risk of unplanned pregnancy, and if one is a condom barrier method, the transmission of sexually transmitted disease is also reduced. Sexual abuse Rape is a majority factor in pregnancies under age 15 and a minority factor above age 15. Studies have found that between 11% and 20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape, while about 60% of teenage mothers claimed their pregnancies were preceded by unwanted sexual experiences. Boyer, Debra and Fine, David (1993), "Sexual Abuse as a Factor in Adolescent Pregnancy and Child Maltreatment" Family Planning Perspectives Vol. 24 (2). Quoted in Teen Pregnancy & Sexual Assault Community Crisis Center, Retrieved January 25, 2007 Gershenson, Harold et al. (1989) "The Prevalence of Coercive Sexual Experience Among Teenage Mothers." Journal of Interpersonal Violence , Vol. 4 (2). Before age 15, a majority of first intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary.The Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males an average of six years their senior. The Alan Guttmacher Institute (1994) "Sex and America's Teenagers". Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries.Elizabeth M. Saewyc, Lara Leanne Magee and Sandra E. Pettingell (2004) Teenage Pregnancy and Associated Risk Behaviors Among Sexually Abused Adolescents Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, Volume 36, Number 3, May/June 2004 Study Links Childhood Sexual Abuse, Teen Pregnancy University of Southern California, Science Blog, 2004 In many countries, sexual intercourse with a young teenage girl and adult male is not treated as consensual because the teenage girl is said to lack the maturity and knowledge to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult male and to understand the repercussions thereof. Sex with a minor girl in industrialized countries is treated as Statutory Rape though this differs according to the jurisdiction. For example in the United Kingdom it is illegal for a man to have sex with a girl under 16, but in Italy it is not illegal unless she is under 14, or Spain and Netherlands if she is under 12 (see Age Of Consent ). Socioeconomic factors Poverty is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy. Economically poor countries such as Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as Switzerland and Japan . In the UK, around half of all pregnancies to under 18s is concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived." Teenage Conceptions By Small Area Deprivation In England and Wales 2001-2 " (Spring 2007)''Health Statistics Quarterly Volume 33'' In Italy , the teenage birth rate in the well-off Central Regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, but, in the poorer Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1000. Sociologist Mike A. Males noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in California : Males, Mike (2001) America’s Pointless “Teen Sex” Squabble , c Youth Today.
There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or Financial Aid before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong. Age discrepancy in relationships Studies indicate that an important contributing factor is an age discrepancy between the teenage girl and the man who impregnates her. Teenage girls with older partners are more likely to become pregnant than those with partners closer in age, and are also more likely to have the baby rather than get an abortion. Males, Michael (2004) Teens and Older Partners Resource Center for Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center For Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older. De Vita, Carol J. (1996) "The United States at Mid-Decade," Population Bulletin, vol. 50, no. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, Inc., March 1996) Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics (1991). Monthly Vital Statistics Report, vol. 42, no. 3, Supplement 9. National Center for Health Statistics, Sept. 1993 Childhood environment Women exposed to abuse, Domestic Violence and family strife in childhood are more likely than those without such experiences to have a teenage pregnancy, and the risk increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences. According to a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences. Tamkins, T. (2004) Teenage pregnancy risk rises with childhood exposure to family strife Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, March-April, 2004 Studies have also found that girls whose fathers left the family earlier in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate, with lowest rates found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the United States and three times more likely in New Zealand to experience an adolescent pregnancy than were father-present girls. Ellis, Bruce J. et al (2003) Does Father Absence Place Daughters at Special Risk for Early Sexual Activity and Teenage Pregnancy? Child Development, v74 n3 p801-21 May-Jun 2003Quigley, Ann (2003) Father's Absence Increases Daughter's Risk of Teen Pregnancy Health Behavior News Service, May 27, 2003 Low educational expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor. Allen et al (2007) Does the UK government’s teenage pregnancy strategy deal with the correct risk factors? Findings from a secondary analysis of data from a randomised trial of sex education and their implications for policy Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2007;61:20-27, Referenced January 26, 2007 A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens. East, P.L., & Jacobson, L.J. (2001). The younger siblings of teenage mothers: a follow-up of their pregnancy risk . ''Developmental Psychology, 37 (2)'', 254-64. Retrieved May 27, 2006. Furstenberg, F.F., Jr, Levine, J.A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1990). The children of teenage mothers: patterns of early childbearing in two generations Foster Care youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the United States, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly 3 times the rate for girls in the general population. A Joint Project of The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy and UCAN (Uhlich Children’s Advantage Network) 16 Feb 2006 Commentator opinion Experts in the area and other commentators have offered varying opinions on the root causes of teenage pregnancy. According to Gill Francis , of the National Children's Bureau , "There are four main reasons why girls in Britain become pregnant. We don’t give children enough information; we give them mixed messages about sex and relationships; social deprivation means girls are more likely to become pregnant; and girls whose mothers were teenage mums are more likely to do the same". Laurence Shaw , a UK Fertility specialist, has suggested that, despite the Social Stigma attached to teenage pregnancy, it is a natural biological adaptation to begin reproducing during the peak fertile period of the late teens and early twenties. This is the period of time when the fecundity rate (a measure of fertility) is highest, nearing 30%.Lessware, Jonathan. (June 19, 2006). Pregnancy in teenage girls 'all part of nature's law' . ''The Scotsman.'' Retrieved July 13, 2006. According to Gracie Hsu of the Family Research Council , "contrary to the common perception that teenage sex and pregnancy typically stem from two teenagers getting caught up in the heat of the moment, new research reveals that many teenage girls are being sexually exploited and impregnated by adult men." She also highlights family breakdown, fatherless families, lack of parental supervision, cultural influences, and erosion of legal protections such as statutory rape laws. Hsu, Gracie (1996) Statutory Rape: The Dirty Secret Behind Teen Sex Numbers From Family Policy, Family Research Council. 1996, Retrieved January 25, 2007 Public opinion Opinion Poll s have also attempted to determine what some of the root causes of teenage pregnancy might be:
LIMITING TEENAGE PREGNANCIES Many health educators have argued that comprehensive Sex Education would effectively reduce the number of teenage pregnancies, although opponents argue that such education encourages more and earlier sexual activity. In the UK, the teenage pregnancy strategy, which was run first by the Department Of Health and is now based out of the Children, Young People and Families directorate in the Department For Education And Skills , works on several levels to reduce teenage pregnancy and increase the social inclusion of teenage mothers and their families by:
The teenage pregnancy strategy has had mixed success. Although teenage pregnancies have fallen overall, they have not fallen consistently in every region, and in some areas they have increased. There are questions about whether the 2010 target of a 50% reduction on 1998 levels can be met. In the United States the topic of sex education is the subject of much contentious debate. Some schools provide "abstinence-only" education and Virginity Pledge s are increasingly popular. Most public schools offer “abstinence-plus” programs that support abstinence but also offer advice about contraception. A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant. Moncloa, Fe, Johns, Marilyn, Gong, Elizabeth J., Russell, Stephen, Lee, Faye, & West, Estella. (2003). Best Practices in Teen Pregnancy Prevention Practitioner Handbook . ''Journal of Extension, 41 (2).'' Retrieved July 7, 2006. The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach. Valk, Guus. (2000). The Dutch Model . ''The UNESCO Courier. Retrieved July 7, 2006. In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Indonesia and Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools. Non-governmental agencies such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against Child Marriage have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female Literacy and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as Iran , Indonesia, and the Indian state of Kerala . MEDICAL OUTCOMES Maternal and , 2006 . Many pregnant teens are subject to , 2006 . Inadequate estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as great for women between 15 and 19 years than for those between the ages of 20 and 24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged between 10 and 14 than for women of about twenty years of age. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa. Risks for medical complications are greater for girls 14 years of age and younger, as an underdeveloped Pelvis can lead to difficulties in Childbirth . Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by Caesarean Section in Industrialized Nations ; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to Eclampsia , Obstetric Fistula , Infant Mortality , or Maternal Death . For mothers in their late teens, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology. SOCIOECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OUTCOMES Several studies have examined the Socioeconomic , Medical , and Psychological impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as Poverty or Social Support , may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents can use family and community support, social services and child-care support to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education. Impact on the mother Being a young mother in an industrialized country can affect one's Education . Teen mothers are more likely to Drop Out of High School . One study in 2001 found that women who gave birth during their teens completed Secondary-level Schooling 10-12% as often and pursued Post-secondary Education 14-29% as often as women who waited until age 30.Hofferth, Sandra L., Reid, Lori, Mott, & Frank L. (2001). The Effects of Early Childbearing On Schooling over Time . ''Family Planning Perspectives, 33 (6).'' Retrieved May 27, 2006. Young motherhood in an industrialized country can affect , 2006 . Most British teenage mothers live in Poverty , with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution. One-fourth of adolescent mothers will have a second child within 24 months of the first. Factors that determine which are more likely to have a closely-spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.Kalmuss, D.S., Namerow, P.B. (1994). Subsequent childbearing among teenage mothers: the determinants of a closely spaced second birth . ''Family Planning Perspectives, 26 (4),''149-53, 159. Retrieved May 27, 2006. There is evidence in the U.S. that with emotional and practical support – for example, good access to education and childcare – teenage mothers can catch up by the age of 30 with the average outcomes for their age group and social-economic background. In the UK, researchers have found that if you compare teenage mothers with other girls with similarly deprived social-economic profiles, bad school experiences and low educational aspirations, the difference in their respective life chances is negligible. It isn't babies that blight young lives Madeleine Bunting, ''The Guardian'', May 27, 2005. Retrieved Feb 12, 2007. Impact on the child Early motherhood can affect the , 2006 . One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to Stimulate their infant through Affectionate Behaviors such as Touch , Smiling , and Verbal Communication , or to be Sensitive and Accepting toward his or her needs. Another found that those who had more Social Support were less likely to show Anger toward their children or to rely upon Punishment . Crockenberg, S. (1987). Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers . ''Child Development, 58 (4)'', 964-75.'' Retrieved May 29 , 2006 . Poor Academic Performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of them being more likely than average to fail to Graduate from secondary school, be held back a Grade Level , or score lower on Standardized Tests . Daughters born to adolescent Parent s are more likely to become teen mothers themselves. A son born to a young woman in her teens is three times more likely to Serve Time in Prison . Maynard, Rebecca A. (Ed.). (1996). '' Kids Having Kids .'' Retrieved May 27, 2006. Impact on other family members Teen pregnancy and motherhood can have an influence upon younger siblings. One study found that the little sisters of teen mothers were less likely to place emphasis on the importance of education and employment and more likely to accept Sexual Initiation , parenthood, and marriage at younger ages; little brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of Non-marital and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to High-risk Behavior s.East, Patricia L. (1996). Do Adolescent Pregnancy and Childbearing Affect Younger Siblings? . ''Family Planning Perspectives, 28 (4)''. Retrieved May 27, 2006. An additional study discovered that those with an older sibling who is a teen parent often end up babysitting their Nieces And Nephew s and that young girls placed in such a situation have an increased risk of getting pregnant themselves. TEENAGE FATHERHOOD In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage (the so-called Shotgun Wedding ). In countries such as India and Greece , the majority of teenage births occur within marriage. In other countries, such as the United States and the Republic Of Ireland , the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the fathers of their children.National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2007). Do most teens who choose to raise the child get married when they find out they're pregnant? In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple and 10% are married." Census 2001 People aged 16-29 " ''Office For National Statistics'' Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. Research has shown that when teenage fathers are included in decision-making during pregnancy and birth, they are more likely to report increased involvement with their children in later years.Fagan, Jay; Barnett, Marina; Bernd, Elisa; and Whiteman, Valerie (2003) Prenatal involvement of adolescent unmarried fathers Fathering, Oct 2003 However, "teenage father" may be a misnomer in many cases. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center For Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older. De Vita, Carol J. (1996) "The United States at Mid-Decade," Population Bulletin, vol. 50, no. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, Inc., March 1996) Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics (1991). Monthly Vital Statistics Report, vol. 42, no. 3, Supplement 9. National Center for Health Statistics, Sept. 1993 The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40 percent of mothers aged 15-17 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older.Family Planning Perspectives, July/August 1995. A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner.California Resident Live Births, 1990, by Age of Father, by Age of Mother, California Vital Statistics Section, Department of Heath Services, 1992. IN THE ARTS, FILMS AND LITERATURE Teenage pregnancy has been used as a theme or plot device in fiction, including Book s, Film s, and Television Series . The setting may be historical ('' The Blue Lagoon '') or contemporary ('' One Tree Hill ''). While the subject is generally treated in a serious manner ('' Junk ''), it can sometimes play up to stereotypes in a comic manner ( Vicky Pollard in '' Little Britain ''). The pregnancy itself may be the result of Sexual Abuse (Rose in '' The Cider House Rules ''), a One-night Stand ( Amy Barnes in '' Hollyoaks '') or a romantic relationship ( Demi Miller in '' EastEnders ''); unusually, in '' Quinceañera '', the central character becomes pregnant through Non-penetrative Sex . The drama often focuses around the discovery of the pregnancy and the decision to opt for Abortion ('' Fast Times At Ridgemont High ''), Adoption ('' Mom At Sixteen ''), Marriage ('' Reba '' and '' Jenny, Juno '') or life as a Single Mother ('' Someone Like You ''). In the German play '' Spring Awakening '' (and the Broadway Musical Based Upon It ), the central female character gets pregnant and dies from a botched abortion. '' Stephanie Daley '' deals with the aftermath of a teenage pregnancy that ends with a dead newborn baby. While the pregnant girl herself is normally the chief protagonist, '' Too Young To Be A Dad '' centers on a 15-year-old boy whose girlfriend becomes pregnant, while '' The Snapper '' focuses on the reactions of the family, particularly the soon-to-be grandfather. Other fiction, particularly in a long-running television series, looks at the long-term effects of becoming a parent at a very young age ('' Degrassi Junior High ''). In '' Gilmore Girls '', because Lorelai Gilmore is only 16 years older than her daughter Rory , the two are more like sisters than parent and child. '' Looking For Alibrandi '' also features the teenage daughter of a woman who was herself a teenage mother. Songs about teenage pregnancy include downbeat tales of abuse ('' Brenda's Got A Baby ''), poverty ('' In The Ghetto '') and back-alley abortion ('' Sally's Pigeons ''), as well as upbeat and defiant tunes such as '' Papa Don't Preach ''. American pop singer Fantasia Barrino , who was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter, released a controversial song about single motherhood entitled '' Baby Mama ''. Autobiographies that look at the author’s own experience of teenage motherhood include '' I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings '' and ''Gather Together in My Name'' by Maya Angelou , '' Coal Miner's Daughter '' by Loretta Lynn , and '' Riding In Cars With Boys '' by Beverly D'Onofrio . SEE ALSO REFERENCES
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