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'', seen on a futuristic imaging device.]] See Also: Science fiction Television Science Fiction first appeared on Television during the Golden Age Of Science Fiction , first in Britain and then in the United States . Special Effects and other production techniques allow creators to present a living visual image of an imaginary world not limited by the constraints of reality; this makes television an excellent medium for science fiction, which in turn contributes to its popularity in this form. Because of its visual presentation mode, television uses much less Exposition than books do to explain the underpinnings of the fictional setting. As a result, the definition and boundaries of the genre are less strictly observed than they are in print media. Because of the relatively high cost of creating a television show compared to the cost of writing and printing books, television shows are obliged to appeal to a much larger audience than print fiction. Some writers and readers believe that a lowest-common-denominator effect lowers the quality of science fiction on television, relative to that in books. With the genre boundaries being weaker, screenwriters and viewers must use more inclusive standards than authors and readers. So the category of science fiction on television is considered in many contexts to include all the Speculative genres, including fantasy and horror; in Britain this group is referred to as "telefantasy". The most enduring and well-known bodies of work in this field are '' Star Trek '' and '' Doctor Who '', though countless other series have attracted large and small audiences over the decades. SCIENCE FICTION TELEVISION HISTORY AND CULTURE US television science fiction See Also: U.S. television science fiction Science fiction has been a popular genre with television viewers in the United States almost since its inception, and the country has produced many of the best-known and most popular sci-fi shows in the world. Most famous of all these – indeed, perhaps the most famous science-fiction program of all – is the iconic '''' and its spin-off shows, comprising the Star Trek Franchise . '' Science Fiction Theatre '' was an early anthology series, running from 1955 and 1957. It was followed by '' The Twilight Zone '' in 1959 and '' The Outer Limits '' in 1963. Lost In Space , a Space Opera which aired from 1965 to 1968, became popular with audiences. It was followed by the influential Star Trek , conceived by Gene Roddenberry and produced by Desilu Productions on the former RKO lot, which later was acquired by Paramount ; it aired on NBC . When NBC tried to cancel it in early 1968, the show was so popular among fans that a campaign organized by Bjo Trimble successfully demanded its return, redefining the relationship between television networks and audiences. However, the eventual cancellation of Star Trek led to a decline in science fiction on American television. During the 1970s, Star Wars reignited interest in science fiction. This led to the production of shows including '' Buck Rogers In The 25th Century '' and '' Battlestar Galactica '' (1978– 80 ). In 1983, '''', which ended in 2005. In 1993, '' SeaQuest DSV '' explored environmental themes. In the same year, Babylon 5 began, set in a detailed universe, using a multi-threaded multi-level story arc. Although ratings were weak among general audiences, Babylon 5 had unprecedented support within Science Fiction Fandom . It raised the bar expected by audiences and led to a broad increase in the quality of science fiction on television in the late 1990s. The time travel drama Quantum Leap used contemporary settings to find a broader audience. The X-Files tapped into popular conspiracy fears and generational angst to find great commercial success at the end of the decade. Over the years, some Comic Science Fiction shows have been popular, including '' My Favorite Martian '', '' Mork & Mindy '', '' 3rd Rock From The Sun '', '' Eureka '', and the animated series '' Futurama ''. At the end of the decade, shows with fantasy and horror elements attracted large audiences, most notably '' Buffy The Vampire Slayer '' and its spinoff '' Angel ''. In the 21st century, shows with Paranormal themes like Medium and Ghost Whisperer have appeared on mainstream networks. Many shows popular with American audiences are now produced outside the US, including Stargate SG-1 and Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV Series) . In recent years, the much lower costs of Reality Television shows have hit all television dramas, but especially those with unusual cost requirements such as science fiction shows. This has led to a sharp decline in production since 2003, though shows like the 2004 Battlestar Galactica series attract strong audiences. Prior to recent years, science fiction television shows were normally centered around a premise and characters were defined essentially based on what they did or encountered in the course of their adventures. However, the growing trend towards character drama and naturalistic plots and settings has replaced the episodic action-adventure format that was once standard for television science fiction. Cosmic themes, exotic settings, so-called Technobabble , and "two fisted action" have been mostly phased out in favor of emotional content and contemporary themes. Also, the demographic audience for science fiction has changed from mostly male to a significant female presence demanding more human elements and stronger female character representation. The aforementioned reimagined Battlestar Galactica is one of the most noted examples of the naturalistic approach towards television science fiction. British television science fiction See Also: British television science fiction In the summer of 1953, BBC staff writer Nigel Kneale created '' The Quatermass Experiment '', leading to further '' Quatermass '' serials and feature film adaptations from Hammer . Unlike the US practice, British SF on television was mainly broadcast live until the early 1960s, and then mainly on videotape until the 1980s. In the 1960s, Britain's independent television network, ITV , influenced by Canadian producer Sydney Newman produced the science-fiction serials ''Pathfinders In Space'' (1960) and its sequel ''Pathfinders to Venus'' (1961). In 1963, the BBC began production of the longest-running science-fiction television series ever, '' Doctor Who ''. It lasted for twenty-six seasons in its original form, and has been revived twice, training a generation of writers, producers, and actors. ''. '' Doctor Who '' alumni had moved on to produce their own genre programmes, such as '' Doomwatch '', '' Survivors '', and '' Blake's 7 ''. In the 1970s, ITV began to produce youth-oriented genre programmes, such as '' Timeslip '' (1970) and '' The Tomorrow People '', as well as shows aimed at a wider audience such as the time-travel drama '' Sapphire & Steel ''. In the 1980s, the BBC adapted novels such as '' The Day Of The Triffids '', '' The Invisible Man '' and ''Child of the Vodyanoi'' (adapted as '' The Nightmare Man ''), also beginning an adaptation of ''The White Mountains'' novels, under the name '' The Tripods ''. The BBC's '' Edge Of Darkness '' was a popular hit. Later, '' Star Cops '' ran for nine episodes before being cancelled, despite critical approval. The BBC also aired science fiction comedy series such as ‘’ The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy ’’ by Douglas Adams and '' Red Dwarf ''. ''Doctor Who'' was finally cancelled in 1989, although it was revived as a 1996 television movie (intended as the start of a new series), and in 2004 as a television series. In the 1990s, '' and '' The Sarah Jane Adventures ''. Other 21st century British science fiction shows have included the time travel drama '' Life On Mars '' on the BBC and '' Eleventh Hour '' and '' Primeval '' on ITV. Canadian science fiction television See Also: Canadian science fiction television Science fiction in Canada was produced by the CBC as early as the 1950s. In the 1970s, CTV produced '' The Starlost ''. In the 1980s, Canadian animation studios including Nelvana , began producing a growing proportion of the world market in animation. In the 1990s, Canada became an important player in live action speculative fiction on television, with dozens of shows like '''', and most notably '' The X-Files '' and '' Stargate SG-1 ''. Many shows have been produced for youth and children's markets, including '' Deepwater Black '' and '' MythQuest ''. In the early 2000s, changes in provincial tax legislation prompted many production companies to move from Toronto to Vancouver . Recent popular shows produced in Vancouver include '' The Dead Zone '', '' Andromeda '', '' Stargate Atlantis '', and the revised '' Battlestar Galactica ''. Because of the small size of the domestic television market, most Canadian productions involve partnerships with production studios based in the United States and Europe. However, in recent years, new partnership arrangements are allowing Canadian investors a growing share of control of projects produced in Canada and elsewhere. Japanese television science fiction See Also: Japanese science fiction television Japan has a long history of producing science fiction series for TV. Only a few of these series are aired outside Japan and even when aired, they tend to be heavily edited Live-action television science fiction '' Tokusatsu '' (特撮), lit. special filming or more commonly SFX is the loose term used to describe the televised science fiction. In 1958, Gekkokamen (月光仮面) became the first science fiction series to be aired. Tsuburaya Eiji , the producer of Godzilla films, He produced Ultra Q in 1964 and Ultraman in 1966, using wireworks and firecrackers for special effects and suit actors for aliens and monsters. In 1971, Ishimori Shotaro produced Kamen Rider (仮面ライダー), based on manga. The single-hero series had commercial (merchandising) limitations among the youth audience (hard for group play), so the first Sentai series was produced in 1975, based on a secret battle team of five rangers. TV dramas including science fiction elements are too numerous to list. Satorare (サトラレ) in 2002 featured genetic geniuses who broadcast thoughts telepathically. Science fiction in anime See Also: History of anime Osamu Tezuka played a major part in the history of science fiction Anime with '' Astro Boy '', an adaptation of a manga that began in 1952. Since then, anime has always been associated with elements from science fiction, particularly in the West. Early science fiction anime strongly influenced Japanese live-action works, and vice versa. Gatchaman (1972) had five members, like most ''sentai'' (combat team) ''tokusatsu'' (special effects) series that followed it. ''Tetsujin 28-go'' (鉄人２８号) or Gigantor started another trend called ''Robottomono'' (ロボット物), lit. robot stories or Mecha . Mobile Suit Gundam (機動戦士ガンダム)) (1979) by Tomino Yoshiyuki brought verisimilitude for characters and setting to ''Robottomono''. During the 1980s, character development, even romance, grew in importance. Later episodes of Armored Trooper Votoms (装甲騎兵ボトムズ)) focused mainly on politics and relationships, while in '' The Super Dimension Fortress Macross '' (超時空要塞マクロス) humanity was saved with the help of Bubblegum Pop singer. The space opera genre is best represented by Morioka Hiroyuki 's Crest Of The Stars . Common anime subgenres include Magical Girl anime, Bishounen , and Bishoujo . 34 Television science fiction in other countries Although the US and the UK have produced the bulk of the world's most famous television science-fiction shows, the popularity of the genre ensures that just about every country which produced television drama has produced some sci-fi at some point. The Australian / American production '' Farscape '' (1999–2003) has been a popular hit in recent years, as have other Australia n science-fiction productions such as the children's serial '' The Girl From Tomorrow '' (1992). Among the notable non-English language productions is the memorable ''" Raumpatrouille "'' was a German series first broadcast in 1966. Also well remembered in Germany are the movies by Rainer Erler , including the miniseries " Das Blaue Palais ". Danish television broadcasted the children's TV-series " Crash " in 1984 about a boy who finds out that his room is a space ship. France produced a small number of science fiction/fantasy television series, including ''" Tang "'' in 1971, about a super secret organization that attempts to control the world with a new super weapon. An interesting pheomena has been the continuing collaboration between French and Japanese animators, resulting in a series of French-Japanese Cartoon s/ Anime , including such titles as ''" Ulysses 31 "'' (1981), ''" The Mysterious Cities Of Gold "'' (1982) and more recently, ''" Ōban Star-Racers "'' (2006). Several science-fiction series were also produced in various European countries, and never translated into English. In created an entire industry, building the foundation for The Lord Of The Rings movies and other productions. SPECULATIVE GENRES ON TELEVISION See Also: :Category:Television genres Because of the need to market television to a wide audience, shows outside the loose realm of science fiction will often tend to gravitate to established tropes, such as Time Travel or Superheroes . Science Fiction The classic mode of science fiction on television is , based on an open-port paradigm in which trouble comes in through the airlocks. Rarer are shows based on space travel without vehicles; Stargate SG-1 is the prime example. Near-future settings work well for science fiction on television; shows such as The Six Million Dollar Man , TekWar , Quatermass , Star Cops , and Mutant X allow producers to use street clothes and contemporary locations, using only minimal props and effects to foster viewers' suspension of disbelief. Using stock sets for other shows results in odd subcategories like the Science Fiction Western ; some established shows also have the occasional episode. Fantasy See Also: Fantasy television Fantasy is less common on television due to higher production cost. Stories with animalistic or otherwise non-human characters, scientifically impossible talents, and settings that evoke awe and wonder are more expense to film on a regular basis, making true , or Divine Intervention like Touched By An Angel or Joan Of Arcadia . Encounters with ghosts or the paranormal are a popular category, with shows like Medium , Ghost Whisperer , or Dead Like Me . Horror See Also: :Category:Horror television series Horror has advantages and disadvantages in the medium of television. On the one hand, horror can often be produced with inexpensive techniques: creative cinematography, pacing, lighting, fake blood or other simple props, prosthetics, or costumes. However, horror relies on a definitive resolution, often with a negative result for main characters. The episodic nature of television generally involves a resolution at the end of the episode, with characters surviving to the next episode; over time, this lessens the extreme tension required in horror. This makes horror an excellent genre for films, but much less so for television, though many anthology shows, notably , also mostly avoid the issue (though are hard on secondary characters). Shows with humorous elements, like The Chronicle , relieve tension for viewers but not characters in the show, making things more accessbile to audiences. Some horror shows use common horror tropes such as Vampires with more conventional dramatic forms like the Heroic Myth (for example Buffy The Vampire Slayer ) or even Gothic Romance ( Dark Shadows ). Demonic Powers and Black Magic are common themes in shows like Brimstone , Hex , and Supernatural . ADAPTATION WITH OTHER MEDIA See Also: Film adaptation Literary adaptation Television is used as a medium for the visual presentation of fiction. In order to draw on an established audience, or simply to leverage the existing creativity of an author, television shows are sometimes based on novels or series of novels. The process of converting a print story is called Adaptation . Producers , Studios , or other intermediaries acquire the rights to produce shows based on a book with a contract known as an Option ; one might say "the studio optioned the book". Many popular novels are optioned, but only a tiny fraction of these ever materialize as an actual show; often, a producer who is interested in a particular show has to purchase an option from another producer who originally negotiated with the author. Rarely, other media are adapted for film, notably Computer Games . The reverse process of adaptation also occurs. Shows may be translated into print novels as Novelization s, where an author is contracted to write a prose version of the story line. Just as television series are a collection of episodes, if there is a plan to convert a series to print, that usually is done as a series of novels. A popular series like Star Trek has resulted in hundreds of novelizations over the years. The visual content of a film is an excellent resource for the development of computer strategy or action games. As well, a series, particularly one that has lasted several seasons, has a rich background of character and setting detail that can provide a strong background and an established market for a Role-playing Game . The most popular series and novels can result in adaptation in many different media. SCIENCE FICTION TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS AND METHODS The need to portray imaginary settings or characters with properties and abilities beyond the reach of current reality obliges producers to make extensive use of specialized techniques of television prodduction. Through most of the 20th century, many of these techniques were expensive and involved a small number of dedicated craft practitioners, while the reusability of props, models, effects, or animation techniques made it easier to keep using them. The combination of high initial cost and lower maintenance cost pushed producers into building these techniques into the basic concept of a series, influencing all the artistic choices. By the late 1990s, improved technology and more training and cross-training within the industry made all of these techniques easier to use, so that directors of individual episodes could make decisions to use one or more methods, so such artistic choices no longer needed to be baked into the series concept. Special effects See Also: Special effects Special effects (or "SPFX") have been an essential tool throughout the history of science fiction on television: small explosives to simulate the effects of various Ray Guns , Squibs of blood and gruesome prosthetics to simulate the monsters and victims in horror shows, and the Wire-flying entrances and exits of George Reeves as Superman . The broad term "special effects" all the techniques here, but more commonly there are two categories of effects. Visual Effects ("VFX") involve photographic or digital manipulation of the onscreen image, usually done in Post-production . Mechanical or Physical Effects involve props, pyrotechnics, and other physical methods used during Principal Photography itself. Some effects involved a combination of techniques; a ray gun might require a pyrotechnic during filming, and then an optical glowing line added to the film image in post-production. Stunt s are another important category of physical effects. In general, all kinds of special effects must be carefully planned during Pre-production . Computer-generated imagery See Also: Computer-generated imagery Babylon 5 was the first series to use Computer-generated Imagery , or "CGI", for all exterior space scenes, even those with characters in space suits. The technology has made this more practical, so that today models are rarely used. In the 1990s, CGI required expensive processors and customized applications, but by the 2000s, computing power has pushed capabilities down to personal laptops in a wide array of software, so that now the term CGI is rarely used; "digital imagery" or simply "animation" are the common terms now. Models and Puppets See Also: Scale model Puppet Models have been an essential tool in science fiction television since the beginning, when Buck Rogers took flight in spark-scattering spaceships wheeling across a matte backdrop sky. The original Star Trek required a staggering array of models; the Enterprise had to be built in several different scales for different needs. Models fell out of use in filming in the 1990s as CGI became more affordable and practical, but even today, designers sometimes construct scale models which are then digitized for use in animation software. Models of characters are Puppets . Gerry Anderson created a series of shows using puppets living in a universe of models and miniature sets, notably Thunderbirds . In recent years, shows like Greg The Bunny and Puppets Who Kill have portrayed puppets as an oppressed minority, for which the politically-correct term is "fabricated-Americans" and the racial epithet is "sock". ALF depicted an alien living in a family, while Farscape included two puppets as regular characters. In Stargate SG-1 , the Asgard characters are puppets in scenes where they are siting, standing, or lying down. Animation See Also: Animation See Also: Anime As animation is completely free of the constraints of gravity, momentum, and physical reality, it is an ideal technique for science fiction and fantasy on television. In a sense, virtually all animated series allow characters and objects to perform in unrealistic ways, so they are almost all considered to fit within the broadest category of speculative fiction (in the context of awards, criticism, marketing, etc.). The artistic affinity of animation to Comic Books has led to a large number of Superhero -themed animation, much of this adapted from comics series, while the impossible characters and settings allowed in animation made this a preferred medium for both Fantasy and for shows aimed at young audiences. Originally, animation was all hand-drawn by artists, though in the 1980s, beginning with Captain Power , computers began to automate the task of creating repeated images; by the 1990s, hand-drawn animation became defunct. Animation in live-action The insectoid methane-breathing N'Grath in Babylon 5 was the first attempt to integrate an animated character into a live-action television series, but the limited computer power available at the time only allowed limited use of this technique. In recent years as technology has improved,this has become more common, notably since the development of the Massive software application permits producers to include hordes of non-human characters to storm a city or space station. The robotic Cylon s in the new version of Battlestar Galactica are usually animated characters, while the Asgard in Stargate SG-1 are animated when they are shown walking around. SCIENCE FICTION TELEVISION ECONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION In general science fiction series are subject to the same financial constraints as other television shows. However, high production costs increase the financial risk, while limited audiences further complicate the business case for continuing production. was the first to cost more than $1 million per episode. The innovative nature of science fiction means that new shows can't rely on predictable market-tested formulas like Legal Dramas or Sitcoms ; the involvement of creative talent outside the Hollywood mainstream introduces more variables to the budget forecasts. The perception, more than the reality, of science fiction shows being cancelled unreasonably is greatly increased by the attachment of fans to their favorite shows, which is much stronger in Science Fiction Fandom than it is in the general population. While mainstream shows are often more strictly episodic, where ending shows can allow viewers to imagine that characters live happily, or at least normally, ever after, science fiction shows generate questions and loose ends that, when unresolved, cause dissatisfaction among devoted viewers. Creative settings also often call for broader story arcs than is often found in mainstream television, requiring science fiction shows many episodes to resolve an ongoing major conflict. Science fiction television producers will sometimes end a season with a dramatic Cliffhanger episode to attract viewer interest, but the short-term effect rarely influences financial partners. Dark Angel is one of many shows ending with a cliffhanger scene that left critical questions open when the series was cancelled. MEDIA FANDOM See Also: Media fandom See Also: science fiction fandom Trekkie One of the earliest forms of media fandom was , which by the early 1990s had become one of the most popular dramas on American television. Although somewhat smaller, Doctor Who fandom considerably predates Star Trek fandom. Meanwhile, Star Trek fans continued to grow in numbers, and began organizing conventions in the 1970s. No other show attracted a large organized following until the 1990s, when Babylon 5 attracted both Star Trek fans and a large number of literary SF fans who previously had not been involved in media fandom. Other shows began to attract a growing number of followers. In the late 1990s, Buffy The Vampire Slayer drew a large mainstream audience into fandom; greater demand allowed (even obliged, for the sake of time management) Buffy actors to charge much higher appearance fees than the Star Trek actors had. This pushed appearances out of the reach of some volunteer non-profit fan groups towards commercial event promoters. At the same time, a market for celebrity autographs emerged on EBay , which created a new source of income for actors, who began to charge money for autographs that they had previously been doing for free. This became significant enough that lesser-known actors would come to conventions without requesting any appearance fee, simply to be allowed to sell their own autographs (commonly on publicity photos). Today most events with actor appearances are organized by commercial promoters, though a number of fan-run conventions still exist, such as Toronto Trek and Shore Leave . Also in the 1990s, Anime fans began organizing conventions. These quickly grew to sizes much larger than other science fiction and media conventions in the same communities; many cities now have anime conventions attracting five to ten thousand attendees. Many anime conventions are a hybrid between non-profit and commercial events, with volunteer organizers handling large revenue streams and dealing with commercial suppliers and professional marketing campaigns. SIGNIFICANT CREATIVE INFLUENCES For a list of notable science fiction series and programs on television, see: List Of Science Fiction Television Programs . People who have influenced science fiction on television include:
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