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See Also: List of racism-related topics Racism by country Racism is a belief or concept that inherent differences between people, in particular those upon which the concept of Race is based, significantly influence cultural or individual achievement, and may involve the idea that one's self-identified race or Ethnic Group or others' race or ethnic group is superior. Definition of "Racism" at Dictionary.com DEFINITIONS As racism carries , usually involving the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others. Legal definition According to UN International Conventions, ''"the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on and Race , in part because the distinction between the ethnicity and race remains debatable among Anthropologists A. Metraux (1950) "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race" in ''American Anthropologist 53(1): 142-145) According to British law, ''racial group'' means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin" {Link without Title} . Sociological Definitions Some sociologists have defined racism as a system of group privilege. In ''Portraits of White Racism'' David Wellman (1993) has defined racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities,” (Wellman 1993: x). Sociologists Noel Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as “...a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,” (Cazenave and Maddern 1999: 42). Sociologist and former American Sociological Association president Joe R. Feagin argues that the United States can be characterized as a "total racist society" because racism is used to organize every social institution (Feagin 2000, p. 16). This stands in contrast to a definition that presumes racism to be an irrational form of bigotry that is not connected to the organization of social structure. Race: social construct or genetic reality? Many scholars maintain Race to be a Social Construct with potent social and political effects but no basis in Biological Science .1Gordon 1964 American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race" Palmie, Stephan (2007) "Genomics, Divination, 'Racecraft'" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 214Mevorach, Katya Gibel (2007) "Race, Racism and Academic Complicity" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 239-240Daniel A. Segal '' 'The European': Allegories of Racial Purity '' Anthropology Today, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Oct., 1991), pp. 7-9 doi:10.2307/3032780 Scholars such as anthropologist Audrey Smedley (2007) contend that the very idea of 'race' implies inequality and hierarchy. It has also been claimed that biologically there are no scientific classifications that delineate human groups into 'races' (Graves 2004). Historians such as Theodore Allen (1994; 1997) have analyzed colonial records from Virginia and concluded that the idea of a "white race" was originally invented in the early 18th century to splice together various European ethnic groups who never before thought they had anything in common. Noel Ignatiev (1995) has written an historical analysis of how the Irish became members of the "white race" in the 19th century. Smedley and Smedley (2005: 16) state: "The consensus among most scholars in fields such as evolutionary biology, anthropology, and other disciplines is that racial distinctions fail on three counts--that is, they are not genetically discrete, are not reliably measured, and are not scientifically meaningful." Ideology As an ideology, racism first appeared during the 19th century, when " Scientific Racism " ideologies, which attempted to provide a Racial Classification of humanity, became very common Pierre-André Taguieff , ''La force du préjugé'', 1987 . Although such racist ideologies have been widely discredited after World War II and the Holocaust , the phenomena of racism and of racial discrimination have remained widespread all over the world. Racism has been a motivating factor in Social Discrimination , Racial Segregation , Hate Speech and violence (such as Pogrom s, Genocide s and Ethnic Cleansing s). Despite the persistence of racial stereotypes, humor and epithets in much everyday language, Racial Discrimination is illegal in many countries. Some Politician s have practiced '' Race Baiting '' in an attempt to win votes. RACIAL DISCRIMINATION Subway station, circa 2005]] Racial discrimination is treating people differently through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to "race". Racial Segregation policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers, including Sendhil Mullainathan and Marianne Bertrand, at the MIT and the University Of Chicago found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States ' long history of discrimination (i.e. Jim Crow Laws , etc.) Sendhil Mullainathan and Marianne Bertrand (2003). "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination", NBER Working Paper No. 9873, July, 2003). Racial theory of superiority In the September 18 , 1858 debate, Abraham Lincoln said: I will say then that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races - that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of making voters or jurors of Negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people; and I will say in addition to this that there is a physical difference between the white and black races which I believe forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality. And in as much as they cannot so live, while they do remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as much as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race. The concept of racial superiority involves a currently obsolete approach to the concept of race, that explicitly includes cognitive abilities to the definition of race. Although not endorsed by modern anthropology, race continued to be a vital concept in the foundations of social psychology as the genetic interpretation of human motivation and performance gave way to an environmental one. Only in more recent times, social psychology has begun to lose interest in the concept. As yet, social psychology has failed to present a rounded, integrated view of the complex interactions of individual and normative factors in human behavior.The Concept of Race in the History of Social Psychology - Jones, James M., Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association (91st, Anaheim, CA, August 26-30, 1983) It was already noted by DuBois that in making the difference between races, it is not race that we think about, but culture: “…a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life” The Conservation of Races - W.E.B. DuBois, 1897 (p. 21) {Link without Title} Late nineteenth century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on race, ethnicity and survival of the fittest to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.The Idea of National Superiority in Central Europe, 1880 – 1918, Marius Turda, ISBN10: 0-7734-6180-9 ISBN13: 978-0-7734-6180-2, 2005 According to this view, Culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism, the denomination "Germanic" became virtually equivalent to superiority of race. Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures, that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: ''"Racism does not originate from the existence of ‘races’. It ''creates'' them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences."'' National Analytical Study on Racist Violence and Crime, RAXEN Focal Point for ITALY - Annamaria Rivera This definition explicitly ignores the fiery polemic on the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of David C. Rowe "A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race."David C. Rowe in Heredity 87 (2001) 254-255 : Book review on The Emperor's New Clothes: biological theories of race at the new millennium. Joseph L. Graves Jr. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey. 2001, ISBN 0-8135-2847-X) [http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v87/n2/pdf/6889531a.pdf Until recent history this racist abuse of physical anthropology has been politically exploited. Apart from being unscientific, racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the Declaration On The Elimination Of All Forms Of Racial Discrimination , adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I).INTER-AMERICAN CONVENTION AGAINST RACISM AND ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AND INTOLERANCE - Study prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee, 2002 {Link without Title} Institutional racism Institutional Racism (also known as structural racism, State Racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".Richard W. Race, , ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed 20 June 2006 . Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were:
Economics and racism Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of Discrimination which is caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.) The common hypothesis embraced by classical economists is that competition in a capitalist economy decreases the impact of discrimination. The logic behind the hypothesis is that discrimination imposes a cost on the employer, and thus a profit-driven employer will avoid racist hiring policies. Furthermore, this means that non-discriminatory employers tend to succeed in the markets.3 UCP descr Declarations against racial discrimination Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 United States Declaration Of Independence , the 1789 Declaration Of The Rights Of Man And Of The Citizen issued during the French Revolution and the 1948 Universal Declaration Of Human Rights , signed after World War II , which all postulate equality between all human beings. In 1950, , UNESCO The United Nations uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the '' International Convention On The Elimination Of All Forms Of Racial Discrimination '', adopted in 1966:
In 2000, the European Union explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
ETHNIC NATIONALISM After the Napoleonic War s, Europe was confronted with the new " Nationalities question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648 Peace Of Westphalia . Nationalism had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the '' Levée En Masse '' by the French Revolutionaries , thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded Republic against the '' Ancien Régime '' order represented by the European monarchies. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of Nation s, and in particular of Nation-state s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ( Ottoman Empire , Holy Roman Empire , Swedish Empire , Kingdom Of France , etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes ('' Kabinettskriege '' in German). Modern , '' Imagined Communities '' (1991); Charles Tilly , ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); Anthony D. Smith , ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. Ethnic Nationalism , which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influences was the Romantic Nationalist movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as Johann Herder (1744-1803), Johan Fichte (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), or also, in France, Jules Michelet (1798-1874). It was opposed to Liberal Nationalism , represented by authors such as Ernest Renan (1823-1892), who conceived of the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the '' Volk '' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily Plebiscite ", 1882) or also John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). John Stuart Mill , ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental Imperialist " ( Hannah Arendt , 1951 Hannah Arendt , '' The Origins Of Totalitarianism '' (1951) ) discourses, for example in the Pan-Germanism or Pan-Slavism discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The Pan-German League (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted German Imperialism , " Racial Hygiene " and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Another, popular current, the '' Völkisch Movement '', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the Thule Society , would participate in the founding of the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the NSDAP Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the Interwar Period of the 1920s-1930s. These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a " Master Race " (often the " Aryan Race " or " Nordic Race ") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying Ethnic Cleansing in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state. Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of Far-right Movements In France , took place during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide '' Querelle '' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus , a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote '' J'accuse '' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet Maurice Barrès (1862-1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France. Maurice Barrès , ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) At the same time, Charles Maurras (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist '' Action Française '' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative '' Métèques ''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the French People . Ethnic conflicts Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as Xenophobia and Ethnocentrism , although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an Ideology or from Scientific Racism , which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases Ethnicity and Nationalism were harnessed to rally Combatant s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians). Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by Moral or Ethical considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208) '', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West. Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the Triangular Trade . New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History''). Some people, like Juan Ginés De Sepúlveda , argued that during the Valladolid Controversy in the middle of the 16th century that the Native Americans were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too. SCIENTIFIC RACISM See Also: Scientific racism The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the New Imperialism period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the Church 's resistance to Positivists accounts of history, and its support of Monogenism , that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with Creationist accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with Unilineal Theories Of Social Progress which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the Social Darwinism discourse, which postulated the " Survival Of The Fittest " idea, a term coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864. Charles Darwin himself may have supported such accounts of history in '' The Descent Of Man '' (1871). See his quote below in the 'Academic' Racism Against Africans section. At the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with Eugenics discourses of " Degeneration of the race" and "blood Heredity ." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on Physical Anthropology , Anthropometry , Craniometry , Phrenology , Physiognomy and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of Cultural Anthropology ( Franz Boas , etc.), the British school of Social Anthropology ( Bronisław Malinowski , Alfred Radcliffe-Brown , etc.), the French school of Ethnology ( Claude Lévi-Strauss , etc.), as well as the discovery of the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis , such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a Gene-centered View Of Evolution in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based their conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetic level. However, the modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular those related to the Race And Intelligence controversy, seems to show that Genetics could also be used for ideological, racist purposes. Auguste Comte 's Positivist ideology of necessary Social Progress as a consequence of Scientific Progress lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites. Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by Francis Galton (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of " Degeneration ". He applied Statistics to study human differences and the alleged " Inheritance Of Intelligence ," foreshadowing future uses of " Intelligence Testing " by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer Emile Zola (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, '' Les Rougon-Macquart '', where he linked Heredity to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics ('' Son Excellence Eugène Rougon '') and medicine ('' Le Docteur Pascal '') and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism ('' L'Assommoir ''), prostitution ('' Nana ''), and homicide ('' La Bête Humaine ''). During the rise of Nazism In Germany , some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century. UNESCO , '' The Race Question '', 1950 According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, '' The Race Question '', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed: "''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the International Institute For Intellectual Co-operation has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the Appeasement Policy of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi Ideology and policy. Masaryk and Beneš took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''" The Third Reich's Racial Policies , its Eugenics Programs and the extermination of Jews in The Holocaust , as well as Gypsies in the Porrajmos and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the Boasian school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled '' The Race Question ''. Polygenism and racial typologies Works such as '' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; INIST - CNRS , Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ( Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, William Z. Ripley used identical racial classification in '' The Races Of Europe '' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include H.S. Chamberlain at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who Naturalized himself as German because of his admiration for the "Aryan race") or Madison Grant , a eugenicist and author of '' The Passing Of The Great Race '' (1916). 'Academic' racism against Africans In relation to African people, so-called 'academic' racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems. Owen 'Alik Shahadah comments on this racism by stating,
and Gliddon 's ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) ]] Charles Darwin stated,
Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said
German philosopher In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." This view that Africa had no history was repeated by Hugh Trevor-Roper , Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. During the Nazi era German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback) by Bernard Boxill In 2007, Professor Emeritus Tatu Vanhanen , father of the Finnish Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen , told in an interview with Kuukausiliite, a monthly magazine supplement of Helsingin Sanomat , that African Poverty is not the fault of the white man. "Whereas the average IQ of Finns is 97, in Africa it is between 60 and 70. Differences in intelligence are the most significant factor in explaining Poverty ", Vanhanen said in 2004. Finnish police considered whether to launch a criminal investigation of Professor Vanhanen for his comments on IQ, race, and the wealth of nations in a magazine interview. Helsingin Sanomat - Comments in interview could bring charges of inciting racism against PM Vanhanen's father . (''Völkerschau'') in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928.]] Human zoos '', August 2000 French - free Savages and Beasts - The Birth of the Modern Zoo , Nigel Rothfels, Johns Hopkins University Press Congolese pygmy , creating a Social Darwinism ideology which tried to ground itself in Darwin 's scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris Colonial Exhibition displayed Kanaks from New Caledonia . by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., Santa Clara University , USA A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the Brussels' World Fair . RACISM AND COLONIALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY See Also: The Second European colonization wave (19th-20th century) Authors such as Hannah Arendt , in her 1951 book '' The Origins Of Totalitarianism '', have said that the racist ideology ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the Imperialist Conquests of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the Herero And Namaqua Genocide , 1904-1907). Rudyard Kipling 's poem '' The White Man's Burden '' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the European Culture over the rest of the world, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs. However, it should be noted, that during the 19th century West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the . Chasing Freedom Exhibition: the Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called " Hottentot Venus " was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, Joseph Conrad published '' Heart Of Darkness '' (1899), a clear criticism of the Congo Free State owned by Leopold II Of Belgium . Examples of racial theories used to legitimate the imperialist conquest include the creation of the " Hamitic " Ethno-linguistic group during the European Exploration Of Africa . Used in different ways, the term was first used by Johann Ludwig Krapf (1810-1881) to qualify all languages of Africa spoken by black people. It was then restricted by Karl Friedrich Lepsius (1810-1877) to African non-Semitic languages. The term then became quite popular, and was applied to different groups ( Ethiopian s, Eritrean s, Berbers , Nubian s, Somali s, etc.) Europeans conceived "Hamitic" people, allegedly descendants of the biblical Ham, Son Of Noah , as leaders within Africa. However, the allegedly Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have 'failed' as rulers, a failing that was sometimes explained by Interbreeding with "non-Hamites". So, in the mid-20th century the German scholar Carl Meinhof (1857-1944) claimed that the " Bantu race" was formed by a merger of Hamitic and " Negro races". The 'Hottentots' ( Nama or Khoi ) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and Bushmen (" San ) races" — both being termed nowadays as Khoisan peoples). The term "Hamitic" is nowadays obsolete. STATE-SPONSORED RACISM See Also: Nazism and race Racial policy of Nazi Germany Generalplan Ost Italian Fascism Eugenics in Showa Japan Xenophobia in Showa Japan Apartheid in South Africa Racial segregation in the United States Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia Bumiputra State Racism played a role in the Nazi Germany regime and Fascist regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's Showa Period . State racism also played a major part in the formation of the Dominican Republic's identity and violent actions encouraged by Dominican governmental Xenophobia against Haitans and "Haitian looking" people. Currently the Dominican Republic employs a de-facto system of separatism for children and grandchildren of Haitians and black Dominicans, denying them birth certificates, education and access to health care. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL USA http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGUSA20070321002 These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal. The formation of the Dominican Republic was based on the Christian Anti-semitism and racism carried out during the Reconquest of Spain .Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272 Anti-Haitianism, Historical Memory, and the Potential for Genocidal Violence in the Dominican Republic University of Toronto Press ISSN 1911-0359 (Print) 1911-9933 (Online) Issue Volume 1, Number 3 / December 2006 DOI 10.3138/7864-3362-3R24-6231 RACISM IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND DURING THE RENAISSANCE Racist opinions occurred in the works of some could write: - :''"...the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to Slavery , because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals..."'' {Link without Title} . The Muqaddimah, Translated by F. Rosenthal Although Anti-Semitism has a long European history, related to Christianism ( Anti-Judaism ), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual Michel Foucault , the first formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern Period as the " Discourse of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of Sovereignty .Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77) Richard E. Nisbett has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the Moors Invaded The Iberian Peninsula , occupying most of Hispania for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of Al-Andalus (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with '' La Convivencia '', an era of religious tolerance and with the Golden Age Of Jewish Culture In The Iberian Peninsula . It was followed by a violent '' Reconquista '' under the '' Reyes Catolicos '' (Catholic Kings), Ferdinand V and Isabella I . The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the '' Cleanliness Of Blood '' doctrine. Following the expulsion of most Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to Convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming " New Christian s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. An Inquisition was carried out by members of the Dominican Order in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal , the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the Marquis Of Pombal in 1772 , almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the Colonization Of The Americas , where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by Eduardo Galeano in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among Others Terms , '' Mestizo '' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), '' Castizo '' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), '' Mulatto '' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc. At the end of the Renaissance , the Valladolid Debate (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of Natives of the " New World " opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas Bartolomé De Las Casas to the Jesuit Juan Ginés De Sepúlveda . The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and Natural Law . To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and Eurocentrism that would arise in the following centuries. Philosopher and historian Michel Foucault argued that the first appearance of racism as a social Discourse (as opposed to simple Xenophobia , which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, in Edward Coke or John Lilburne 's work. However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or ", the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as Boulainvilliers , Nicolas Fréret , and then, during the 1789 French Revolution , Sieyès , and afterward Augustin Thierry and Cournot . Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people". He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified Nation-state is, of course, here an Anachronism — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the Absolute Monarchy , who tried to bypass the Aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate . Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the " Franks ", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans , who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the Right Of Conquest . Early modern racism was opposed to , in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... Mixture Of All Races And Of All Times "''. While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the Ethnic Nationalist discourse which identified the "race" to the " Folk ", leading to such movements as Pan-Germanism , Pan-Turkism , Pan-Arabism , and Pan-Slavism , medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and Social Conflict s. Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and 's Psychoanalysis , which opposed the concepts of "blood Heredity ," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse. RACISM BY COUNTRY See Also: Racism by country RACISM AGAINST MIDDLE EASTERN PEOPLE See Also: Anti-Arabism Anti-Iranian sentiments After the annexation of the of January 12, 1964 put an end to the local Arab dynasty. As many as 17,000 Arabs were massacred by the descendants of black African Slaves , according to reports, and thousands of others were detained and their property either confiscated or destroyed. Country Histories - Empire's Children 7 There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab racism in the of people with a Middle Eastern ethnic background was proposed by a New York Congressman Peter T. King on August 15 2006 .http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930 (who constitute a completely different set of ethnic groups than Arabs), as well as South Asians of different ethnic/religious backgrounds (Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs) have been stereotyped as "Arabs". The case of Balbir Singh Sodhi , a Sikh who was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a White Supremacist for "looking like an Arab terrorist" (because of the turban that is a requirement of Sikhism ), as well as that of Hindus being attacked for "being Muslims" have achieved prominence and criticism following the September 11 attacks. {Link without Title} {Link without Title} Anti-Arabism is often tied in with Islamophobia , Islam being a chief religion of Arab peoples. The U.S.-led " War On Terror " is seen by many as a war against Muslims, whom many scapegoat for various attacks committed by groups like Al-Qaeda . While it is arguable whether or not those who carry out the War on Terror subscribe to these beliefs, many people who support it consider its enemy to be the adherents of Islam. Since the September 11 2001 Attacks on U.S. targets by al-Qaeda, many attacks on Muslims and their places of worship have been carried out by individuals in supposed retaliation. In 2004, the Young Patriots of Abidjan, strongly Nationalist organisation, rallied by the State media, plundered possessions of foreign nationals in Abidjan . Calls for violence against whites and non-Ivorians were broadcast on national radio and TV after the Young Patriots seized control of its offices. Rapes, beatings, and murders of white expatriates and local Lebanese followed. Thousands of expatriates and Lebanese fled. The attacks drew international condemnation.89 In May 2005, there have been explosive riots between North Africans and Romas in Perpignan , France, after young Arab man was shot dead and another Arab man was lynched by a of group Roma .1011 |
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