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Popular education is at the crossroads between '' (1762) was another obvious theoretical influence, as well as the works of Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig (1783 - 1872), at the origins of the Nordic movement of Folk High School s (''højskole'' ( Danish ), ''kansanopisto'' ( Finnish ), ''folkehøyskole/folkehøgskole/folkehøgskule'' ( Norwegian ), ''folkhögskola'' ( Swedish ), and ''Volkshochschule'' ( German ). During the 19th century, popular education movements were involved, in particular in France , in the Republican and Socialist movement. A main component of the Workers' Movement , popular education was also strongly influenced by Positivist , Materialist and Laicite , if not Anti-clerical , ideas. Popular education may be defined as an educational technique designed to raise the consciousness of its participants and allow them to become more aware of how an individual's personal experiences are connected to larger societal problems. Participants are empowered to act to effect change on the problems that affect them. POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY One of the roots of popular education was the Condorcet Report during the 1789 French Revolution . These ideas became an important component of the Republican and Socialist movement. Following the split of the First International at the 1872 Hague Congress between the "anti-authoritarian socialists" ( Anarchists ) and the Marxist s, popular education remained an important part of the Workers' Movement , in particular in the Anarcho-syndicalist movement, strong in France , Spain and Italy . In France During the Second Empire , Jean Macé founded the '' Ligue De L'enseignement '' (Teaching League) in 1866; during the Lille Congress in 1885, Macé reaffirmed the Masonic inspiration of this league devoted to popular instruction. Following the 1872 Hague Congress and the split between Marxists and anarchists, Fernand Pelloutier set up in France various '' Bourses Du Travail '' centres, where workers gathered and discussed politics and sciences. The Jules Ferry Laws in the 1880s, establishing free, laic, mandatory and public education, were one of the founding stones of the Third Republic (1871-1940), set up in the aftermaths of the 1870 Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune . Furthermore, most of the teachers, who were through-out one of the main support of the Third Republic, so much that it has been called the ''République des instituteurs'' ("Republic of Teachers"), while the teachers themselves were called, because of their Republican Anti-clericalism , the ''hussards noirs de la République'', supported Alfred Dreyfus against the conservatives during the Dreyfus Affair . One of its consequences was for them to set up free educational lectures of humanist topics for adults in order to struggle against the spread of Anti-semitism , which was not limited to the far-right but also affected the workers' movement. Paul Robin's work at the orphanage in Cempuis was the model for Francisco Ferrer 's Modern School in Spain. Robin taught atheism, internationalism, and broke new ground with co-ed schooling, and teaching orphans with the same respect given to other children. He taught that the individual should develop in harmony with the world, on the physical, moral, and intellectual planes. 20TH CENTURY - 1936 .]] Popular education continued to be an important field of socialist politics, reemerging in particular during the Popular Front in 1936-38, while '' Autogestion '' (self-management), a main tenet of the Anarcho-syndicalist movement, became a popular slogan following the May '68 revolt. Following the Experimental High School, opened six months before the LAP. Furthermore, the secondary school Vitruve was another source of inspiration (it opened in 1962 in the 20th Arrondissement of Paris, and is still active). Theoretical references include Célestin Freinet and his comrades from the I.C.E.M., as well as Raymond Fonvieille , Fernand Oury ,and others theoreticians of " Institutional Pedagogy ," as well as those coming from the Institutional Analysis movement, in particular René Lourau , as well as members of the Institutional Psychotherapeutic movement, which were a main component in the 1970s of the Anti-psychiatric Movement (of which Félix Guattari was an important member). Since 2005, the LAP has created contact with others self-managed firms, in the REPAS Network (''Réseau d'échanges et de pratiques alternatives et solidaires'', Network of Exchange of Solidarity and Alternative Practices"). A ''second generation'' for such ''folk high school'' meant to educate the people and the masses spread in the society (mainly for workers) just before the '' in some cities around the country. The Reactionary Vichy Regime put an end to such tentatives during World War II . That tendency continued in the post-war period, yet topical lectures turned to be more practical and focused on daily life matters. Nowadays, the largest remnant is located in Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin ''départements'' (see external links). Following World War II , popular teaching attempts were initiated mainly by the Anarchist Movement . Already in 1943, Joffre Dumazedier , Bénigno Cacérès , Paul Lengrand , Joseph Rovan and others founded the '' Peuple Et Culture '' (People and Culture) network, aimed at democratization of culture. Joffre Dumazedier conceptualized, at the Liberation, the concept of "cultural development" to oppose the concept of " Economic Development ", thus foreshading the current Human Development Index . Historian Jean Maitron , for example, was director of the Apremont school in Vendée from 1950 to 1955. Such popular educations were also a major feature of , where courses tend to be more conservative and sociological composition more middle-upper class. Another attempt in popular education, specifically targeted towards the question of Philosophy (France being one of the rare country where this discipline is taught in ''terminale'', the last year of high school which culminate in the ''baccalauréat'' degree) was the creation, in 1983, of the open university named '' Collège International De Philosophie '' (International Philosophy College, or Ciph), by Jacques Derrida , François Châtelet , Jean-Pierre Faye and Dominique Lecourt , in an attempt to re-think the teaching of philosophy in France, and to liberate it from any institutional authority (most of all from the University). As the ancient '' Collège De France '', created by Francis I , it is free and open to everyone. The Ciph was first directed by Derrida, then by Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe , and has had as teaching members Giorgio Agamben , Alain Badiou , Sidi Mohamed Barkat , Geoffrey Bennington , François Châtelet, José Gil , Olivier LeCour Grandmaison , Antonio Negri , etc. The Ciph is still active. In 2002, philosopher s to homeless people, through lectures and practises of famous ''chefs'' First lecture at Argentan in November was delivered by the main cooker of Crillon motel; Michel Onfray commented on radio he liked to enable such an extravagant encounter.. REFERENCES SEE ALSO
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