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plug-in hybrid Toyota Prius conversion with PHEV-30 (30 mile (48 km) All-electric Range ) battery packs]] A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a Hybrid Vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electrical Power Source . Plug-in hybrids have characteristics of both conventional Hybrid Electric Vehicle s and of Battery Electric Vehicle s. While PHEVs are usually passenger vehicles, they can also be commercial passenger vans, utility trucks, school buses, scooters, and military vehicles. PHEVs are sometimes called '''grid-connected hybrids''', '''gas-optional hybrids''' or '''GO-HEVs'''. The cost for electricity to power plug-in hybrids during all-electric operation in California has been estimated as less than one fourth the cost of gasoline. "What are Plug-In Hybrids?" Team-Fate. Retrieved on 07 August 2007 . In comparison to conventional vehicles, PHEVs can help reduce Air Pollution and dependence on Petroleum , and lessen Greenhouse Gas emissions that cause Global Warming . Plug-in hybrids use no Fossil Fuel during their All-electric Range if their batteries are charged from Renewable Energy sources. Other benefits include improved national Energy Security , fewer fill-ups at the filling station, the convenience of home recharging, opportunities to provide emergency backup power in the home, and Vehicle To Grid applications.Simpson, A. (2006) ''Cost-Benefit Analysis of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology'' (PDF) National Renewable Energy Laboratory conference report CP-540-40485 As of September 2007, plug-in hybrid passenger vehicles are not yet in production. However, 2007 Conversions of production model Hybrid Vehicle s are available from conversion kits and conversion services. The most prominent PHEVs on the road in the U.S. are conversions of 2004 or later Toyota Prius hybrid cars, which extend their electric-only range and add plug-in charging. TERMINOLOGY A plug-in hybrid's All-electric Range is designated by PHEV-''(miles)'' or PHEV''(kilometers)''km representing the distance the vehicle can travel on electric power alone. For example, a PHEV-20 can travel 20 miles without using its internal combustion engine, or about 32 kilometers, so it may also be designated as PHEV32km. HISTORY Hybrid Vehicles were produced beginning as early as 1899 by Lohner- Porsche . Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. However, the term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket. The July 1969 issue of , 2007 . Retrieved on August 7 , 2007 . The car could be plugged into a standard North American 110 Volt AC outlet for recharging. In 2003, , 2007 . Passenger compartment heat was powered by the battery pack as well as an auxiliary coolant circuit that was heated by the range extender engine. Renault discontinued the Elect'Road after selling about 500, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, for about €25,000.Renault ( March 10 , 2003 ) "Kangoo reinvents the electric car" (PDF) press release pack, with cover removed, in the CalCars "PRIUS+" plug-in hybrid converted Toyota Prius ]] In September 2004, the California Cars Initiative (CalCars) converted a 2004 Toyota Prius into a prototype of what it calls the PRIUS+. With the addition of () of Lead-acid Batteries , the PRIUS+ achieved roughly double the fuel economy of a standard Prius and can make trips of up to using only electric power. The vehicle, which is owned by CalCars technical lead Ron Gremban, is used in daily driving, as well as a test bed for various improvements to the system.2 On , 2007 . Retrieved on 2007 - 08-07 . Lithium-ion batteries are expected to significantly improve fuel economy, and have a lower weight-to-energy ratio, but cost more to produce, and face safety concerns due to high operating temperatures. On November 29 , 2006 GM announced plans to introduce a production plug-in hybrid version of , 2007 . Retrieved on 2007 - 08-07 . GM has said that they plan on introducing plug-in and other hybrids "for the next several years." In January 2007, GM unveiled the 2007 General Motors presented the Volt as a PHEV-40 that starts its engine when 40% of the battery charge remains, and which can achieve a fuel economy of , even if the vehicle is not plugged in.Abuelsamid, S. ( January 7 , 2007 ) "Detroit Auto Show: It's here. GM's plug-in hybrid is the Chevy Volt Concept" ''AutoBlogGreen'' On July 9 , 2007 , Ford Motor Company CEO Alan Mulally said he expects Ford to sell plug-in hybrids in five to ten years, the time depending on advances in Lithium-ion Battery technology. Ford will provide Southern California Edison with twenty Ford Escape Hybrid sport utility vehicles reconfigured to work as plug-ins by 2009, with the first by the end of this year. On , 2007 On August 9 , 2007 , General Motors vice president Robert Lutz announced that GM is on track for Chevrolet Volt production to begin by 2010. Announcing an agreement with A123Systems , Lutz said GM would like to have their planned Saturn VUE plug-in on the roads by 2009. TECHNOLOGY Powertrains concept car is a ''series'' plug-in hybrid, meaning that its mechanical engine power is exclusively converted to electricity, not used directly.]] PHEVs are based on the same three basic 2007 Series hybrids use an 2007 Parallel hybrids, such as Honda's 2007 Series-parallel hybrids have the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode. Hybrid powertrains currently used by 2007 Modes of operation Regardless of its architecture, a plug-in hybrid may be capable of 2007 Charge-depleting mode allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively (or depending on the vehicle, almost exclusively, except during hard acceleration) on electric power alone until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's internal combustion engine or fuel cell will be engaged. This period is the vehicle's All-electric Range . This is the only mode that a Battery Electric Vehicle can operate in, thus their limited range.Gonder, J. and Markel, T. (2007) "Energy Management Strategies for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles" (PDF) technical report NREL/CP-540-40970 presented at ''SAE World Congress,'' April 16-19, 2007, Detroit, Michigan Charge-sustaining mode is used by production 2007 The battery in a HEV can thus be thought of as an energy accumulator rather than a fuel storage device. Once a plug-in hybrid has exhausted its all-electric range in charge-depleting mode, it can switch into charge-sustaining mode automatically. Elect'road operates in blended mode, using engine and battery power simultaneously.]] Blended mode is a type of charge-depleting mode normally employed by vehicles which do not have enough electric power to sustain high speeds without the help of the internal combustion portion of the powertrain. A blended control strategy typically takes more miles to use stored grid electricity than a charge-depleting strategy.Santini, ''et al'' ( (ICE) which extended its range somewhat. 2004 and later model Toyota Prius conversions can only run without using the ICE at speeds of less than about due to the limits dictated by the vehicle's powertrain control software. However, at faster speeds electric power can still be used to displace gasoline thus improving the fuel economy in blended mode, generally doubling the fuel efficiency. Mixed mode describes a trip in which a combination of the above modes are utilized.EAA-PHEV wiki: Mixed-mode accessed 29 April 2007 For example, a PHEV-20 Prius conversion may begin a trip with of low speed charge-depleting, then get onto a freeway and operate in blended mode for , using worth of all-electric range at twice the fuel economy. Finally the driver might exit the freeway and drive for another without the internal combustion engine until the full of all-electric range are exhausted. At this point the vehicle can revert back to a charge sustaining-mode for another until the final destination is reached. Such a trip would be considered a mixed mode, as multiple modes are employed in one trip. This contrasts with a charge-depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range. Conversely, the portion of a trip which extends beyond the all-electric range of a PHEV would be driven primarily in charge-sustaining mode, like a conventional hybrid. Batteries PHEVs typically require deeper , 2006 ) "Altair Nanotechnologies Details Long Life Features of Its Nano-Titanate Battery" ''Business Wire'' press release The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if its cell is overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with Iron Phosphates , the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. The price premium for early 2007 conventional hybrids is about US$5000, some US$3000 of which is for their NiMH battery packs. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, that would break even after six to ten years of operation. The conventional hybrid premium could fall to US$2000 in five years, with US$1200 or more of that being cost of lithium-ion batteries, providing a three-year payback. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their larger, more expensive batteries.Voelcker, J. (January 2007) "Lithium Batteries for Hybrid Cars" ''IEEE Spectrum'' Nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned.Toyota Motor Co (2004) "Hybrid Hype? Fact and Fiction Surrounding the New Technology" ''Toyota.com'' accessed 2007 Conversions of production hybrids , PFC charger, and Conversion of an existing production hybrid to a plug-in hybrid typically involves increasing the capacity of the vehicle's Battery Pack and adding an onboard AC-to-DC charger. Ideally, the vehicle's powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery pack's additional energy storage capacity and power output. Many early plug-in hybrid 2007 Early Lead-acid Battery conversions by CalCars demonstrated () of EV-only and () of double mileage Blended Mode range. EDrive Systems use Valence Technology , 2007 . Other companies offering plug-in conversions or kits for the Toyota Prius include Hymotion , Hybrids Plus , and Manzanita Micro. The EAA-PHEV project was conceived in October of 2005 to accelerate efforts to document existing HEVs and their potential for conversion into PHEVs.Electric Auto Association "Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle" wiki (2005-present) The Electric Auto Association -PHEV "Do-It-Yourself" Open Source community's primary focus is to provide general information to curious parties and detailed conversion instruction to help guide experienced EV Converters through the process, including public conversions, lasting about two hours per car. Many members of organizations such as CalCars and the EAA as well as companies like Hybrids Plus , Hybrid Interfaces of Canada, and Manzanita Micro participate in the development of the project. ADVANTAGES Fuel efficiency See Also: Energy efficiency Fuel economy claims for PHEVs depend on the amount of driving between recharges. If no gasoline is used the MPG equivalent depends only on the efficiency of the electric system. A () range PHEV-70 may annually require only about 25% as much gasoline as a similarly designed PHEV-0, depending on how it will be driven and the trips for which will be used. A further advantage of PHEVs is that they have potential to be even more efficient than conventional hybrids because more limited use of the PHEV's internal combustion engines may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency. While a Prius is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30% efficiency (well below the engine's 38% peak efficiency) the engine of a PHEV-70 would likely operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve modest power needs when the combustion engine would run well below its peak efficiency. The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity generation, inversion, battery charging/discharging, the motor controller and motor itself, the way a vehicle is used (its Duty Cycle ), and the opportunities to recharge by connecting to the electrical grid. Greenhouse gas emissions See Also: Global warming Another potential advantage of PHEVs is a predicted reduction in Carbon Emissions should PHEV use become widespread. Increased drivetrain efficiency results in significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, even taking into account energy lost to inefficiency in the production and distribution of grid power and charging of batteries. A study by the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE) predicts that, on average, a typical American driver is expected to achieve about a 15% reduction in net CO2 emissions compared to a regular hybrid, based on the 2005 distribution of power sources feeding the US electrical grid. Additionally, for PHEV’s recharged in areas where the grid is fed by power sources with lower CO2 emissions than the current average, net CO2 emissions associated with PHEVs will decrease correspondingly. The same study predicts that in areas where more than 80% of grid-power comes from coal-burning power plants, local net CO2 emissions will increase.Kliesch, J. and Langer, T. (September 2006) "Plug-In Hybrids: an Environmental and Economic Performance Outlook" American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy However, given the global nature of problems associated with CO2 emissions, specifically those related to Global Warming , localized increases in CO2 emissions are not considered a significant problem if global CO2 emissions are decreased. Operating costs is shown the PHEV Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van in the U.S. Postal Service ]] In California, as of 2006, the cost to plug in at night is equivalent to US$0.75 per U.S. gallon (3.8 L) of gasoline, whereas gasoline sells for over US$3 per gallon. The cost of electricity for a Prius PHEV is about US$0.03 per mile (US$0.019 per km), based on and a cost of electricity of US$0.10 per kilowatt hour.California Cars Initiative ( 2007 . Vehicle-to-grid electricity See Also: V2G PHEVs and fully electric cars may allow for more efficient use of existing electric production capacity, much of which sits idle as operating reserve most of the time. This assumes that vehicles are charged primarily during Off Peak periods (i.e., at night), or equipped with technology to shut off charging during periods of peak demand. Another advantage of a plug-in vehicle is their potential ability to load balance or help the grid during peak loads. This is accomplished with Vehicle To Grid technology. By using excess battery capacity to send power back into the grid and then recharge during off peak times using cheaper power, such vehicles are actually advantageous to utilities as well as their owners. Even if such vehicles just led to an increase in the use of night time electricity they would even out electricity demand which is typically higher in the day time, and provide a greater return on capital for electricity infrastructure.James, W. (September 2006) "Large Oil and GHG Reductions with Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles" ''Alternative Transport Energies Conference'' (Perth, Australia) In October 2005, five Toyota engineers and one Aisin AW engineer published an 2007 In November 2005, more than fifty public power leaders from across the nation met at 2007 From , 2007 Regulations intended to protect electricians against power other than from grid sources would need to be changed, or regulations requiring consumers to disconnect from the grid when connected to non-grid sources will be required before such backup power solutions would be feasible.News.com ( April 9 , 2007 ) "PG&E sees plug-in hybrids as potential profit centers" 2007 . DISADVANTAGES Disadvantages of plug-in hybrids include the additional cost and weight of a larger battery pack. Increased pollution is expected to occur in some areas with the adoption of PHEVs, but most areas will experience a decrease in pollution.Knipping, E. and Duvall, M. (June 2007) "Environmental Assessment of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Volume 2: United States Air Quality Analysis Based on AEO-2006 Assumptions for 2030" '' Electric Power Research Institute and Natural Resources Defense Council '' accessed July 21 , 2007 A study by the ACEEE predicts that widespread PHEV use in heavily coal-dependent areas would result in an increase in local net sulfur dioxide and mercury emissions, given emissions levels from most coal plants currently supplying power to the grid.Clayton, M. ( technologies could create power plants which supply grid power from coal without emitting significant amounts of such pollutants, the higher cost of the application of these technologies may increase the price of coal-generated electricity. The net effect on pollution is dependent on the fuel source of the electrical grid (fossil or renewable, for example) and the pollution profile of the powerplants themselves. Identifying, regulating and upgrading single point pollution source such as a powerplant—or replacing a plant altogether—may also be more practical. From a human health perspective, shifting pollution away from large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage. COMMERCIALIZATION PHEVs have been sold as commercial passenger , 2007 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technologies, Inc converts diesel buses to plug-in hybrids, under contract for the Chicago Transit Authority . Interest in plug-in hybrids increased in 2006 to such a level that the architecture was included as an area of research in President , 2007 . Patent encumbrance of NiMH batteries In 1994, General Motors acquired a controlling interest in Ovonics 's battery development and manufacturing, including patents controlling the manufacturing of large Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries . In 2001, Texaco purchased GM's share in GM Ovonics. A few months later, Chevron acquired Texaco. In 2003, Texaco Ovonics Battery Systems was changed to Cobasys , a 50/50 joint venture between Chevron and Energy Conversion Devices (ECD) Ovonics .Roberson, J. ( March 14 , 2007 ) "Supplier Cobasys exploring more hybrid batteries" ''Detroit Free Press'' In her book, ''Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that Will Recharge America'' , published in February, 2007, Sherry Boschert argues that large-format NiMH batteries are commercially viable but that Cobasys refuses to sell or license them to small companies or individuals. Boschert reveals that Cobasys accepts only very large orders for these batteries. When Boschert conducted her research, major auto makers showed little interest in NiMH batteries. Since no other companies were capable of producing large orders, Cobasys was not manufacturing any NiMH batteries for automotive purposes.Boschert, S. (2007) ''Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that Will Recharge America'' (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers) ISBN 9780865715714 However, in December, 2006, Cobasys and as well. Cobasys remains unwilling to sell NiMH batteries in smaller quantities to individuals interested in building or retrofitting their own PHEVs. SEE ALSO REFERENCES EXTERNAL LINKS
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