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Despite the existence of universally agreed upon signs of beauty in both genders, both heterosexual and homosexual men tend to place significantly higher value on physical appearance in a partner than women.1 This can be explained by Evolutionary Psychology as a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on Secondary Sexual Characteristics as well as general indicators of fitness (for example, symmetrical features) enjoying greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners, although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was probably signalled less by physical features. Physical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged, in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.Lorenz, Kate. (2005). " Do Pretty People Earn More? " CNN.com In many cases humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it. Physical attractiveness is distinct from, but can include, sexual attractiveness. For example, humans often regard children and young individuals — both human and animal — as being highly attractive or " Cute " for various reasons, but without Sexual Attraction . Universal correlates of beauty Strong correlations between attractiveness and particular physical properties have been found across cultures. Despite significant variation, there nonetheless exists a tremendous degree of agreement among cultures as to what is perceived as attractive when it is associated with human health. Healthier looking skin is universally associated with attractiveness. Infants, who presumably have not yet been affected by culture, tend to prefer the same faces considered attractive by adults.Langlois et al, 1990. These findings are used to imply that a large part of attractiveness is determined by inborn human nature - not nurture. DETERMINANTS OF MALE PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS Physique are typically judged as being highly physically attractive for their slim waists and chest muscularity.]] Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females.Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume 10, No 1 1981 Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulders as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume 10, No 1 1981 Preference can also emerge for muscularity, though research performed at McLean Hospital has shown that Western men have a tendency to overestimate the amount of muscle considered ideal by women by as much as thirty pounds, whereas Asian men collectively do not exhibit such a misconception. http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002608.html A normal level of the Hormone Testosterone is a possible indicator of good sexual health. In the absence of normal testosterone levels, a man may exhibit physical symptoms of less muscle development and physical height reduction. For Heterosexual females, Homosexual males and Bisexuals of both genders across the world, the one near-universal sexually attractive feature of a man is a ''v''-shaped Torso : a relatively narrow waist offset with broad shoulders. While some cultures prefer their males huskier and others leaner, the rule of a ''v''-shaped torso generally holds true.http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article855409.ece Women seduced by ‘V man’ with a matted chest from timesonline.com Facial features It has been shown that women prefer more Masculine men during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle and more Feminine men during other parts of the cycle.2 This distinction supports the Sexy Son Hypothesis , which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are traditionally masculine rather than the best caregivers. http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases/2003/Oct03/r102203 Masculine facial features are characterized by a strong brow, a high forehead and a broad jaw whereas feminine features are less pronounced. Height Female's sexual attraction towards a male can be partly determined by the Height of the man.Pierce C. A. 1996; Cunningham, M.R. 1990; Pawlowski B, Dunbar RI, Lipowicz A 2000 Women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing. This preference can be explained by Evolutionary Psychology as the fact that ancestral women who were attracted to tall, physically powerful men benefited from better protection and therefore gained evolutionary Fitness .3 Additionally height in men is associated with status in nearly all cultures, which is beneficial to women romantically involved with them. This preference was passed on genetically. As a corollary, short men are viewed as unattractive for both casual and intended long-term relationships. Studies of women's personal ads support the existence of this preference; in one study of ads requesting height in a mate, 80 percent requested a height of 6 feet or taller. However, this percentage only was of ads specifying height in the first place, and therefore possibly self-selected and/or biased by a third factor such as female height. Recent research has found that women are Statistically more likely to be attracted to men of average height when looking for long term commitment while the opposite is true when a short term relationship is intended.Sohn, E. ''Health'', Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9, Cosmopolitan Magazine has also published an article stating that women are most attracted to men who are 1.1 times her own height. In addition it was found that women have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their Menstrual Cycle at the time. While women usually desire men that are at least the same height as themselves or taller, other factors also determine male attractiveness.Sohn, E. ''Health'', Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9, DETERMINANTS OF FEMALE PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS The determinants of female physical attractiveness include those aspects that display health and fitness for Reproduction and sustenance. These include correlates of Fertility such as ''youth'',4 '' Waist-hip Ratio '',Singh, D 1993 ''mid upper arm circumference'', Girl power; Human evolution.(Mothers, malnutrition and daughters) Economist (US), The, May, 22, 2003 ''body mass proportion''Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. 1998 and ''facial symmetry''.Berscheid and Reis, 1998Fink, B. & Penton-Voak, I.S. (2002) Signals of youth 's youthful features, such as full lips and clear skin, add to her physical attractiveness.]] Since a woman's reproductive value declines steadily with age after twenty, evolutionary selection has favored men who are attracted to youth in a mate. One study across 37 cultures showed men desire, on average, a woman 2.5 years younger than themselves for a wife with men in Nigeria and Zambia at the far extreme, desiring their wives to be 6.5 to 7.5 years younger. As men age, they also desire a larger age gap from their mates. This preference for youth has also lead to a preference of Neotenic and youthful-appearing features. Full lips, clear, smooth skin, clear eyes, lustrous hair, noticeable breasts (has been shown in Western culture), and good muscle tone are all viewed as attractive in women. Large breasts have also been shown to be attractive to men in Western societies, with the explanation that larger breasts will more explicitly show the aging process, hence an "honest" indicator of fertility.http://www.uoregon.edu/~sugiyama/docs/LSsugiyama-buss_c09CEforrequests.pdf Lawrence S. Sugiyama Proportion of body mass to body structure The Body Mass Index (BMI) is another important universal determinant to the perception of beauty.Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. 1998 The BMI refers to the proportion of the body mass to the body structure. However, the optimal body proportion is interpreted differently in various cultures. The Western ideal considers a slim and slender body mass as optimal while many historic cultures consider an embonpoint or plump body-mass as appealing. Cunningham, M.R., Roberts, A.R., Barbee, A.P., Druen, P.B., & Wu, C.H. 1995 5 Men don't seem to have evolved to hold a particular build as more attractive, but rather to be drawn to whichever build associates with social status. However, it should be noted that, in the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices, though when American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, they (the men) chose figures of average build, indicating that women are misled as to how thin men prefer women to be. The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for Erect Posture .Furnham, Adrian, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland 1998 Waist-hip ratio See Also: waist-hip ratio Notwithstanding wide cultural differences in preferences for female build, scientists have discovered that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) of any build is very strongly correlated to attractiveness ''across all cultures''. Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are usually rated as more attractive by men from European cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Marilyn Monroe , Sophia Loren , and the Venus De Milo all have ratios around 0.7.http://www.focused-on-fitness.com/health/bmi-waist-hip-ratio.php In other cultures, preferences vary,7 ranging from 0.6 in China,8 to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,91011 and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.1213 Height Most males exhibit a preference for females of shorter physical stature than themselves, and studies indicate that women of below average height have greater reproductive success. BBC News: “Tall men ‘top husband stakes’” An advantage to smaller size may be that smaller size may be seen as more youthful, and males find Pedomorphic characteristics in females attractive.[http://www.humanevolution.net/a/marriage.html] Yet another possible explanation is that shorter females usually reach sexual maturity earlier than their taller counterparts. BBC News: “Tall men ‘top husband stakes’” Prototypicality as beauty See Also: Koinophilia Besides biology and culture, there are other factors determining physical attractiveness. The more familiar a face seems, the more highly it is usually judged to be attractive, an example of the Mere Exposure Effect . Also, when many faces are combined into a composite image (through computer morphing), people usually view the resulting image as more familiar, attractive, and beautiful than the faces that were combined to make the composite.14 One interpretation is that this shows an inherent human preference for prototypicality. That is, the resultant face emerges with the salient features shared by most faces, and hence becomes the Prototype . The prototypical face and features is therefore perceived as symmetrical and familiar. This reveals an "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous".Berscheid and Reis, 1998 However, critics of this interpretation point out that compositing computer images also has the effect of removing skin blemishes such as scars, and generally softens sharp facial features. Classical conceptions of beauty are essentially a celebration of this Prototypicality . This shows the importance of prototypicality in the judgment of beauty, and also explains the emergence of similarity of the perception of attractiveness within a community or society, which shares a Gene Pool . Skin tone Another feature is skin color on the spectrum of dark to light. As with most determinants of attractiveness, there are cultural differences: lighter tones are preferred by some cultures, while in others, tanned or darker skin is preferred. For some time after the Victorian era, lighter skin was preferred, as it was considered a marker of a more "cultured" individual or "gentlewoman" who did not have to engage in outdoor labor. In the 20th and 21st century Western world, tanned skin has often been considered highly attractive for both men and women. Here, the tan has come to carry with it connotations of having an active outdoor lifestyle or frequent holidays in the sun, thus better (implied) physical health or wealth. While this has only recently become the case with women, tan skin has more historically been seen as attractive in males. In ancient Near-Eastern and Aegean art, for instance, women were drawn white and men a reddish brown. While pale skin for either sex denoted wealth, a tan suggested a rugged, masculine occupation such as a soldier, an adventurer, a sailor, or a farmer, and thus held a degree of appeal. In the modern age, in western culture, intentionally tanning is seen as a pursuit for women, because of the two very different origins of tanning's appeal. Even though there is no official "rule", the presumption is that a woman gets tanned by means of sunbathing, while a man gets tanned by means of physical labor in the hot sun. In eastern parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia , this preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In East Asia in particular, fair skin is associated with youth, since skin darkens with exposure to the sun and aging. This conflation of youth and beauty is not exclusive to East Asia, and can be linked to the phenomenon of Neoteny . Thus, sales of skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. A preference for fair skin however is not a recent development, and in China, for example, can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. In those periods, Chinese brides were often described and praised to suitors as being fair-skinned, a trait usually only associated with girls from royalty or nobility who could afford to stay indoors most of the time. SOCIAL EFFECTS OF ATTRACTIVENESS When a person is seen as attractive or unattractive, assumptions are brought into play. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good. Attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy, and attractive people do tend to have these characteristics. However, this is probably due to Self-fulfilling Prophecy ; from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; 1977Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979) Physical attractiveness can have real effects. A survey conducted by , including France , Germany and Spain . It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria. The discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is referred to as Lookism . Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those that are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions, receiving better treatment from authorities and the Legal System , having more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships, and marrying into families with more money.De Santis, A; and Kayson, W. A; 1999Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; 1977Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979) Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. However, in terms of behavior, some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, have more sexual partners, engage in a wider variety of sexual activities and have more Casual Sex . They are also prone to Infidelity and are more likely to have Open Marriages .Etcoff pp.50-53,185-187 SEE ALSO NOTES REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
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