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EXTRA HEAVY OIL AND TAR SANDS See Also: Heavy crude oil Tar sands Heavy oils and Tar Sands (aka oil sands) occur world-wide, but the two most important deposits are the Athabasca Tar Sands in Alberta, Canada and the Orinoco extra heavy oil deposit in Venezuela . The hydrocarbon content of these deposits is called Bitumen , on which the fuel Orimulsion is based. The Venezuelan extra heavy oil deposits differs from tar sands in that they flow more readily at ambient temperature and could be produced by cold-flow techniques, but the recovery rates would be less than the Canadian techniques (about 8% versus up to 90% for Surface Mining and 60% for Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage ). It is estimated by oil companies that the Athabasca and Orinoco sites (both of similar size) have as much as two-thirds of total global oil deposits. However, they have only recently been considered proven reserves of oil as cost to extract the oil declined to less than $15 per barrel at the Suncor and Syncrude mines while world oil prices rose to over $70 during the Oil Price Increases Of 2004-2006 . Extracting a significant percentage of world oil production from these Fossil Fuel s will be difficult since the extraction process takes a great deal of Capital, Manpower And Land . Another major constraint is energy for Heat and Electricity Generation , currently coming from Natural Gas , itself in Short Supply . A bitumen upgrader is under construction at Fort McMurray , Alberta to supply Syngas to replace natural gas, and there are even proposals to build Nuclear Reactors using fuel from nearby Uranium City, Saskatchewan to supply steam and electricity. At rate of production projected for 2015 , about 3 million barrels per day, the Athabasca oil sands reserves would last over 400 years.2 The oil extraction process requires either strip mining or in-situ processing, steam and caustic soda (NaOH). The process is more energy intensive than conventional oil and thus more expensive. OIL SHALE See Also: oil shale Oil Shale is a general term applied to a group of fine black to dark brown Shale s rich enough in organic material (called Kerogen ) to yield Petroleum and combustible gas upon Distillation . The kerogen in oil shale can be converted to oil through the chemical process of Pyrolysis . During pyrolysis the oil shale is heated to 450–500 °C in the absence of air and the kerogen is converted to oil and separated out, a process called "retorting". Oil shale has also been burnt directly as a low-grade fuel. Oil Shale requires extensive processing, consumes large amounts of water and energy. An operation producing 100,000 barrels per day requires approximately 1.2 Gigawatts of dedicated electric generating capacity to heat the oil shale. The United States Office Of Naval Petroleum And Oil Shale Reserves estimates the world supply of oil shale at 1662 billion barrels (264 billion m³) of which 1200 billion barrels (191 billion m³) is in the United States {Link without Title} . US deposits Most of the U.S. oil shale deposits are located in the Green River Formation ( Green River and Washakie basins, Wyoming ; Uinta basin, Utah ; Piceance Creek basin, Colorado ). Estonia , Russia , Brazil , Australia and China currently mine oil shale, however production is declining due to economic and environmental factors. BIOFUELS Biofuels such as Biodiesel , Ethanol , and Straight Vegetable Oil are also Hydrocarbon fuels. There are non-hydrocarbon Biofuels as well such as anaerobic hydrogen producers. THERMAL DEPOLYMERIZATION Thermal Depolymerization (TDP) has the potential to recover a lot of energy from existing sources of waste such as Petroleum Coke as well as pre-existing waste deposits. Because energy output varies greatly based on feedstock, it is difficult to estimate potential energy production. COAL AND GAS CONVERSION The conversion of coal and natural gas has the potential to yield great quantities of non-conventional oil albeit at much lower net energy output. Because of the high cost of transporting natural gas, many known but remote fields are not being developed. Conversion can make this energy available even under present market conditions. The Karrick Process is a low temperature carbonization (LTC) of coal, shale, Lignite or any carbonaceous materials. These are heated at 360 °C to 750 °C (680 °F to 1380 °F) in the absence of air to distill out oil and gas. Production works out at about $35 per barrel. The Fischer-Tropsch Process operates on similar principle to the Karrick process, but is less efficient for Coal Gasification because more of the energy content of the coal is lost. For producing Liquid Fuel From Natural Gas , the Fischer-Tropsch process is currently an area of significant process research by most Major Oil Companies .http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8129/8129catalysis2.html] SEE ALSO
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