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( Lithuania n Reconstructionist ) group conduct a ritual.]] Neopaganism or '''Neo-Paganism''' is an Umbrella Term used to identify a wide variety of New Religious Movement s, particularly those influenced by ancient and pre- Abrahamic Pagan religions.Lewis, James R. ''The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements'' (Oxford University Press, 2004). p. 13. ISBN 0195149866.Hanegraaff, Wouter J. ''New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought'' (Brill Academic Publishers, 1996). p. 84. ISBN 9004106960. These movements are extremely diverse. The beliefs of adherents of Neopaganism range widely from Monotheism to Polytheism as well as other paradigms. ''See'' List Of Pagan Traditions . Many Neopagans practice a Spirituality that is entirely modern in origin, while others attempt to Reconstruct or revive culturally historic Pagan and indigenous Belief Systems .1 ETYMOLOGY The word ''Pagan'' comes from the Latin (''paganus'', literally ''country dweller''), originally meaning ''rustic'' or ''from the country''. As the cities converted to Christianity , the rural folk held onto their old beliefs longer. Always Pejorative , ''pagan'' was applied to polytheistic religions to indicate they were nothing more than the rural superstitions of the uneducated farmers. Neopaganism may be defined as a "post- Christian " New Religious Movement , and is pronouncedly a modern phenomenon with its roots in early 19th Century Romanticism . Other Neopagans stress a connectedness or lineage with older forms of Paganism in terms of an alleged "underground" continuity or tradition but such claims often display Fakelore as opposed to outright reconstruction or cultural continuation.Adler (1986) pp.9, 136-152, 326 TERMINOLOGY The term "Neopagan" is used by academics and adherents alike to identify Pagan traditions which are largely modern in origin, or which are conceived as reconstructions, continuations or revivals of ancient practices. While "pagan" (lowercase) is still used by many to denote an irreligious person, adherents of modern Pagan and Neopagan religions capitalize these words because, in these cases, the words are being used to describe a set of religious pracitices, or adherents to these, "in the same way as one would describe a 'Christian' or a 'Jew'." The term "Neopagan" provides a means of distinguishing between historical Pagans of ancient cultures and the adherents of modern religious movements. The category of religions known as "Neopagan" besides Polytheistic Reconstructionism includes syncretistic or eclectic approaches like Wicca , Neodruidism , and many others.2 " Reconstructionists " - those who practice modern forms of culturally-specific historical pagan religions - sometimes self-identify as Pagan or Neopagan, depending on their respective personal or group belief. Generally, most reconstructionists avoid usage of the term "Neopagan" and even "Pagan", instead preferring terms like "polytheist", or traditional terms from the languages of their specific cultures. Some Reconstructionists do not identify as part of the Neopagan community, although in a purely technical sense, their traditions are "Neopagan" since even the most historically accurate reconstructions are now being practiced by modern people in a contemporary context.Adler (2006) pp.243-299Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group ISBN 0-8065-2710-2. pp.128-140 Reconstructionism attempts to understand and historical beliefs and worldviews and emulate them in the contemporary world. This should be distinguished from attempts to reconstruct the entire setting of a historical epoch, known as Living History or Historical Reenactment . HISTORY The roots of Neopaganism begin with the Renaissance and the reintroduction of Classicism and the resurgence of interest in Graeco-Roman Polytheism in the wake of works like the '' Theologia Mythologica '' of 1532. The Romantic movement of the 18th Century led to the re-discovery of Old Norse Literature and Germanic Poetry . Based on this, the 19th century saw a surge of interest in Germanic Paganism with the Viking Revival in the British Isles and in Scandinavia . In Germany the Völkisch Movement was in full swing. These Neopagan currents coincided with Romanticist interest in Folklore and Occultism , and the rise of Nationalism .3 p.22 During this resurgence in the United Kingdom , Neo-Druidism and various Western occult groups emerged, such as the Hermetic Order Of The Golden Dawn and the Ordo Templi Orientis , who attempted to syncretize "exotic" elements like Egyptian cosmology and Kabbalah into their belief systems, although not necessarily for purely religious purposes. Influenced by the anthropologist Sir James George Frazer 's '' The Golden Bough '', several prominent writers and artists were involved in these organizations, including William Butler Yeats , Maud Gonne , Arthur Edward Waite , and Aleister Crowley . Along with these early occult organizations, there were other social phenomena such as the interest in Mediumship , and an interest in Magic and other supernatural beliefs which were at an all time high in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In the 1920s Margaret Murray theorized that a Witchcraft religion existed underground and in secret, and had survived through the witchcraft prosecutions by Ecclesiastic and Court s. Most historians now reject Murray's theory, as it was partially based on the similarities of the accounts given by those accused of witchcraft and such similarity is thought to actually derive from the standard set of questions laid out in Witch-hunt ing manuals that were used by interrogators.Hutton, ''Triumph of the Moon'' pp.194-201 Murrays idea nevertheless exerted great influence on certain neopagan currents; in the 1940s , Englishman Gerald Gardner claimed to have been initiated into a New Forest Coven . '' Gardnerian Wicca '' is used to refer to the traditions of Neopaganism that adhere closely to Gardner's teachings, differentiating it from similar traditions, such as Alexandrian Wicca . In the meantime, Germanic Mysticism in Germany had developed into baroque forms such as Guido Von List 's "Armanism", from the 1900s merging into Anti-semitic and National Mysticist ('' Völkisch '') currents, notably with Lanz Von Liebenfels ' '' Guido Von List Society '' and '' Ostara '' magazine, which with the rise of Nazism were partially absorbed into Nazi Occultism (while other Germanic mysticist groups, such as the '' Germanische Glaubens-Gemeinschaft '' of Ludwig Fahrenkrog were disendorsed by the Nazi regime). Such distortions of Germanic mythology were denounced by J. R. R. Tolkien , e.g. in a 1941 letter where he speaks of Hitler's corruption of "that noble northern spirit, a supreme contribution to Europe, which I have ever loved and tried to present in its true light" ('' Letters '', 55-56). Because of such connections with Nazism, neopaganism was virtually eclipsed for about two decades following World War II . The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in Neodruidism as well as the rise of Germanic Neopaganism and Ásatrú in the USA and in Iceland . The 1980s and 1990s saw, on the one hand, an increasing interest in serious academic research and Reconstructionist Pagan traditions, and on the other, popularization and syncretism with elements of New Age , Counter-culture . Wicca was notably influenced by Feminism in the 1970s, leading to the creation of an eclectic movement known as Dianic Wicca , and further diversified into other sub-denominations, distinguished from British Traditional Wicca which emphasizes initiatory lineage. Oberon Zell-Ravenheart was a modern popularizer of the term "Neo-Pagan", beginning in 1967 with the early issues of '' Green Egg '', described as being published by "the 1st Neo-Pagan Church Of All Worlds ". HISTORICAL SOURCES Many Neopagans and Neopagan traditions attempt to incorporate elements of historical religions, cultures and mythologies into their beliefs and practices, often emphasizing the hoary age of their sources. Thus, Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as the ''"Old Religion"'', a term popularized by Margaret Murray in the 1920s, while Germanic Neopaganism (more properly defined as a Meso-Paganism ) is referred to as '' Forn Sed '' or ''"the Old Way"''. Such emphasis on the antiquity of religious tradition is not exclusive to Neopaganism, and is found in many other religions. For example the terms '' Purana '', '' Sanatana Dharma '', and the emphasis on the antiquity of the Ancient Egypt ian sources of the Hellenistic Mystery Religion s. Antiquity of source suggests authenticity and authority to many believers. Some claims of continuity between Neopaganism and older forms of Paganism have been shown to be spurious, or outright false, as in the case of Iolo Morganwg 's Druid's Prayer . Wiccan beliefs of an ancient monotheistic Goddess were inspired by Marija Gimbutas 's description of Neolithic Europe . The factual historical validity of her theories have been disputed by many scholars, including historian Ronald Hutton . While most Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient traditions are not generally considered to be literally factual by Neopagans, in the sense that the Bible and other Abrahamic texts are often thought of by their followers. Eclectic Neopagans in particular are resistant to the concept of Scripture or excessive structure, considering personal freedom to be one of the primary goals of their spirituality.Adler (1986) p.23 In contrast, some Reconstructionist sects, like those who practice Theodism , take a stricter religious approach, and only recognize certain historical texts and sources as being relevant to their belief system, intentionally focusing on one culture to the exclusion of others, and having a general disdain for the eclectic mentality. The Mythological sources of the various Neopagan traditions are similarly varied, including Celtic , Norse , Greek , Roman , Sumerian , Egyptian and others. Some groups focus solely on one cultural tradition, while others draw from several. For example, Doreen Valiente 's text ''The Charge Of The Goddess '' used materials from ''The Gospel of Aradia'' by Charles G. Leland (1899), as well as material from Aleister Crowley's writings. Some Neopagans also draw inspiration from modern traditions, including Christianity , Buddhism and others, creating syncretisms like "Christian Witchcraft" or "Buddheo-Paganism".Telesco, Patricia (ed) (2005) ''Which Witch is Which?'' Franklin Lakes, NJ, New Page Books. ISBN 1-56414-754-1 pp.94-8 Since many Neopagan beliefs do not require exclusivity, some Neopagans practice other faiths in parallel. Since eclectic Neopagans take a rather undogmatic religious stance, and sometimes see no one as having authority to deem a source "apocryphal", Neopaganism has been notably prone to and better judgement.'" Quoting Ed Fitch, "I think all of us have matured somewhat. After a while you realize that if you've heard one story about an old grandmother, you've heard six or seven just like it." Quoting Gwydion Pendderwen , "Yes, I wrote a fantasy. It was a desire. It was something I wished would happen. Perhaps that's why there are so many of these fantasies running around in the Craft today, and people trying to convince other people that they're true. It is certainly so much more pleasant and 'magical' to say 'It happened this way,' instead of 'I researched this. I wrote these rituals. I came up with this idea myself.'" ECOLOGICAL AND MYSTICAL CURRENTS Neopaganism generally emphasizes the sanctity of Earth and Nature. Some Neopagans are influenced by Animist traditions of the indigenous Native Americans and Africans . Neopagans often feel a duty to protect the Earth through or Vegan are only such in response to the modern Factory Farm , finding its methods of ending animal life for food or other uses inhumane. Many Neopagans refer to themselves as following Nature-based spirituality, and this ethic links Neopagan spiritual practitioners with indigenous, shamanic, and other traditions that supposedly pre-date agricultural civilizations. CONCEPTS OF THE DIVINE Most Neopagan traditions are Polytheistic , but the interpretation of the concept of Deity or deities varies widely, including Monist , Pantheist , Panentheist , Dualist , Deist , Animist , Henotheist , Psychological and Mystical variations and interpretations. Hutton states that the historical Pagans did not see ''"All Goddesses as one Goddess; all Gods as one God"'', but some types of modern Neopagans believe that there is but a single Divinity or life force of the universe, which is Immanent in the world. The various manifestations and Archetype s of this divinity are not viewed as wholly separate, but as different aspects of the divine which are ineffable. In Wicca, (especially s. Historical Paganism, particularly in the Mediterranean , tended to regard beliefs as valid as long as they conformed to the traditions and customs, or ''cultural patrimony'' of the people. As Christian Eschatology became a rising force, Pagan thinkers such as Celsus and the Roman Emperor Julian wrote arguments against Christian claims and in defense of the traditional religions, which give us insight into their contrasting beliefs. ceremony at Avebury in England ]] WORSHIP AND RITUAL Many Neopagan traditions include Occult or "magical" elements in their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular emphasises the role of Witchcraft and ritual. Other Neopagan traditions may include a belief in the supernatural, but place much less emphasis on the working of magic. Most Neopagan religions celebrate the cycles and seasons of nature through a festival calendar that honors these changes. The timing of festivals, and the rites celebrated, may vary from climate to climate, and will also vary (sometimes widely) depending upon which particular Neopagan religion the adherent subscribes to. NUMBER OF ADHERENTS Adherents.com estimates that there are roughly one million Neopagans worldwide (as of 2000). {Link without Title} ; including "Wicca, Magick, Druidism, Asatru, neo-Native American religion and others". High estimates by Neopagan authors may reach several times that number. Phyllis Curott, ''The Book of Shadows: A Modern Woman's Journey Into the Wisdom of Witchcraft and the Magic of the Goddess'' (1998) estimates there are 3 to 5 million Wiccans in the USA alone. A precise number is impossible to establish, because of the largely uninstitutionalised nature of the religion, and the secrecy observed by such institutions as there areEdwards, Catherine. "Wicca Casts Spell on Teen-Age Girls " in Insight online magazine, Vol. 15, No. 39 -- October 25, 1999: "There is much to-do about secrecy, and groups do not release membership rolls." {Link without Title} , sometimes explained by fear of Discrimination . Britain A study by Ronald Hutton compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major UK organizations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This estimate accounted for multiple membership overlaps as well as the number of adherents represented by each attendee of a Neopagan gathering. Hutton estimated that there are 250,000 Neopagan adherents in The United Kingdom , roughly equivalent to the national Hindu community.Hutton (2001) North America In the United States, the ARIS 2001 study based on a poll conducted by The Graduate Center at The City University Of New York found that an estimated 140,000 people self-identified as Pagans; 134,000 self-identified as Wiccans; and 33,000 self-identified as Druids. This would bring the total of groups largely accepted under the modern popular western definition of Neopagan to 307,000. Other groups measured in the report, such as Native Americans , New Age rs and a significant portion of Unitarian Universalists , could be categorized under this definition, but many of these adherents would not consider themselves Pagan nor would the mainstream Pagan communities accept them as such. The Covenant of the Goddess conducted a poll of U.S. and Canadian Neopagans in 1999 that estimated the population in those countries at 768,400. This would seem to support the view that there are at least one million adherents, worldwide. This poll was not scientific and represents a self selected subset of all Neopagans, but it does provide some interesting insights that confirm what many Neopagans have observed anecdotally. Some other statistics from this poll are:
FORMS The term "Neopaganism" encompasses a very broad range of groups and beliefs. Syncretic or Eclectic approaches are usually inspired by historical traditions, but not bound by any strict identification with a historical religion or culture. Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca , British Traditional Wicca , and variations such as Dianic Wicca are examples of eclectic traditions, as are Neo-druid groups like Ár NDraíocht Féin . Wicca See Also: Wicca Wicca is the largest Neopagan religion in the USA . Wicca is a modern religion first publicized in 1954 by Gerald Gardner . Gardner claimed that the religion was a modern survival of an old Witch cult, originating in the pre-Christian Paganism of Europe and existing in secret for centuries. Various forms of Wicca have since evolved or been adapted from Gardner's British Traditional Wicca or Gardnerian Wicca such as Alexandrian Wicca . Other forms loosely based on Gardner's teachings are Faery Wicca , Kemetic Wicca , Judeo-Paganism or "jewitchery", Dianic Wicca or "Feminist Wicca" - which emphasizes the divine feminine, often creating women-only or lesbian-only groups.Telesco (2005) p.114. The common denominator amongst all the variants of Wicca are a reverence for nature and active ecology, venerations of a Goddess and/or Horned God , elements of a variety of ancient Mythologies , a belief in and practice of Magic and sometimes the belief in Reincarnation and Karma . ( Lithuania n reconstructionist) group conduct an indigenous Spring ''Jorė'' ritual in Kulionys , Lithuania.]] Reconstructionism See Also: Polytheistic reconstructionism In contrast to the eclectic traditions, Reconstructionists are usually very culturally oriented and attempt to reconstruct historical forms of Paganism, in a modern context. For example, adherents of Hellenic Polytheism reconstruct the practices and beliefs of Ancient Greece , while Kemetic , Celtic and Germanic Reconstructionists practice the indigenous beliefs of Ancient Egypt , Celtic Paganism and Germanic Paganism , respectively. Syncretism See Also: Syncretism Neo-pagans often point to pagan elements in Christian history; a notable example being the adoption of local gods in Christianity as stands on those grounds. Modern Kildare Cathedral Other forms
SEE ALSO Related theological concepts ;Complementary
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