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A microorganism (also spelled as '''microrganism''') or ''microbe'' is an Organism that is Microscopic (too small to be seen by the human eye). The study of microorganisms is called Microbiology . Microorganisms can be Bacteria , Fungi , Archaea or Protist s, but not Virus es and Prion s, which are generally classified as non-living. Micro-organisms are generally single- Cell ed, or '''unicellular''' organisms; however, there are exceptions as some unicellular Protist s are visible to the average Human , and some multicellular species are microscopic. Microorganisms live almost everywhere on earth where there is liquid Water , including Hot Spring s on the Ocean floor and deep inside rocks within the Earth 's Crust . Microorganisms are critical to nutrient recycling in Ecosystems as they act as Decomposer s. As some microorganisms can also Fix Nitrogen , they are an important part of the Nitrogen Cycle . However, Pathogen ic microbes can invade other organisms and cause Disease s that kill millions of people every year. 2002 WHO mortality data Accessed 20 January 2007 HISTORY Evolution Single-celled microorganisms were the First Forms Of Life to develop on earth, approximately 3—4 Billion Years Ago .123 Further evolution was slow,4 and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, all organisms were microscopic.5 Therefore, for the majority of the history of Life On Earth the only form of life were microorganisms.6 The identification of bacteria, algae and fungi in Amber that is 220 million years old, shows that the morphology of microorganisms have not changed significantly since the Triassic period.7 Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly and microbes such as bacteria can also freely exchange genes by Conjugation , Transformation and Transduction between widely-divergent species.8 This Horizontal Gene Transfer , coupled with a high Mutation rate and many other means of Genetic Variation , allows microorganisms to swiftly Evolve (via Natural Selection ) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution has led to the recent development of ' Super-bugs ' - Pathogenic Bacteria that are resistant to modern Antibiotic s.9 Discovery , the first person to observe microorganisms using a Microscope ]] Prior to Anton Van Leeuwenhoek 's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery as to why Grapes could be turned into Wine , Milk into Cheese , or why food would spoil. Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but he did establish that there were forms of life that were not visible to the naked eye.10 Accessed 30 November 200611 Accessed 30 November 2006 Leeuwenhoek's discovery, along with subsequent observations by Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur , ended the long-held belief that life Spontaneously Appear ed from non-living substances during the process of spoilage. Lazzarro Spallanzani found that microorganisms could only settle in a broth if the broth was exposed to the air. He also found that boiling the broth would Sterilise it and kill the microorganisms. Louis Pasteur expanded upon Spallanzani's findings by exposing boiled broths to the air, in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the growth medium, and also in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a curved tube that would not allow dust particles to come in contact with the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment. Nothing grew in the broths in the course of Pasteur's experiment. This meant that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as Spore s on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the death blow to the theory of spontaneous generation and supported Germ Theory . In 1876, Robert Koch established that microbes can cause disease. He did this by finding that the blood of cattle who were infected with Anthrax always had large numbers of Bacillus Anthracis . Koch also found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, causing the healthy animal to become sick. He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness. Based upon these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microbe and a disease in what are now known as Koch's Postulates . The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905 Nobelprize.org Accessed November 22, 2006. Though these postulates cannot be applied in all cases, they do retain historical importance in the development of scientific thought and can still be used today.12 CLASSIFICATION showing the common ancestry of all three Domains of life.13 Bacteria are colored blue, Eukaryote s red, and Archaea green. Relative positions of some Phyla are shown around the tree.]] Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the Taxonomic organization of life on the planet. Bacteria and Archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of Eukaryote s are also microscopic, including most Protists and a number of Fungi . Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore are not microbes, although the field of Microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses. Prokaryotes Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a Cell Nucleus and the other Organelle s found in Eukaryote s. Prokaryotes are almost always unicellular, although some such as Myxobacteria can aggregate into complex structures as part of their Life Cycle . These organisms are divided into two groups, the archaea and the bacteria. Bacteria See Also: Bacteria '' bacteria magnified about 10,000x]] Bacteria are the most diverse and abundant group of Organism s on Earth . Bacteria inhabit practically all environments where some liquid water is available and the temperature is below +140 °C. They are found in Sea Water , Soil , animals' Gastrointestinal Tract s, Hot Spring s and even deep beneath the Earth's crust in Rock s.14 Practically all surfaces which have not been specially sterilized are covered in bacteria. The number of bacteria in the world is estimated to be around five million trillion trillion, or 5 × 1030.15 Bacteria are practically all invisible to the naked eye, with few extremely rare exceptions, such as '' Thiomargarita Namibiensis ''.16 They are Unicellular organisms and lack organelles. Their genome is usually a single loop of DNA , although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called Plasmid s. Bacteria are surrounded by a Cell Wall , which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by Binary Fission or sometimes by Budding . Some species form extremely resilient Spores , but for Bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and can double as quickly as every 10 minutes.17 Archaea See Also: Archaea Archaea are also single-celled organisms that lack nuclei. In the past, the differences between bacteria and archaea were not recognised and archaea were classified with bacteria as part of the kingdom Monera . Archaea differ from bacteria in their genetics and biochemistry. For example, while bacterial Cell Membranes are made from Phosphoglycerides with Ester bonds, archaean membranes are made of Ether Lipid s. Archaea were originally described in extreme environments, such as Hot Spring s, but have since been found in all types of habitats.18 Only now are scientists beginning to appreciate how common archaea are in the environment, with Crenarchaeota being the most common form of life in the ocean, dominating ecosystems below 150 m in depth.1920 These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in Ammonia oxidation.21 Eukaryotes See Also: Eukaryote , a typical Eukaryotic microorganism]] All living things which are ''individually'' visible to the naked eye are Eukaryotes (with few exceptions, such as '' Thiomargarita Namibiensis ''), including Human s. However, a large number of Eukaryote s are also microorganisms. Eukaryote s contain Organelle s such as the Cell Nucleus , the Golgi Apparatus and Mitochondria in their Cell s. These structures are absent in Bacteria and Archaea . The nucleus is an Organelle which houses the DNA that makes up a cell's Genome . DNA itself is arranged in complex Chromosome s."Eukaryota: More on Morphology." {Link without Title} (Accessed 10 October 2006) Mitochondria are organelles that are vital in Metabolism as they are the site of the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation . Mitochondria evolved from Symbiotic bacteria and retain a remnant genome.22 Like bacteria, Plant Cell s also have Cell Wall s, but also contain organelles such as Chloroplast s in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes. Chloroplast s produce energy from Light by Photosynthesis . They were also originally symbiotic Bacteria . Unicellular Eukaryote s are those eukaryotic organisms that consist of a single Cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is significant since most Multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell called a Zygote at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be either Haploid or Diploid , and some organisms have multiple Cell Nuclei (see Coenocyte ). However, not all microorganisms are unicellular as some microscopic eukaryotes are made from multiple cells. Protists See Also: Protista Of the Eukaryotic groups the protists are most commonly Unicellular and microscopic. This is a diverse group of organisms which are not easy to classify. Several Algae Species are Multicellular Protists , and Slime Molds have unique life cycles with unicellular, colonial, and multicellular stages. ''.]] Animals See Also: Micro-animals All animals are multicellular, however some are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopic Arthropod s include Dust Mite s, and Spider Mite s, while microscopic Crustacean s include Copepod s and the Cladocera . Another common group of microscopic animals are the Rotifer s, which are filter feeders that are usually found in fresh water. Fungi See Also: Fungus The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast ('' Saccharomyces Cerevisiae ''). Plants See Also: Plant The Green Algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as Protist s, others such as Charophyta are classified with Embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. HABITATS AND ECOLOGY Microorganisms are found in almost every Habitat present in nature. Even in hostile environments such as the Poles , Desert s, Geyser s, Rock s, and the Deep Sea , some types of microorganisms have adapted to the extreme conditions and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as Extremophiles . Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the earth's surface,23 and it has been suggested that the amount of living organisms below the earth's surface may be comparable with the amount of life on or above the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a Vacuum , and can be highly resistant to Radiation , which may even allow them to survive in space.24 Many types of microorganisms have intimate Symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually beneficial ( Mutualism ), while others can be damaging to the Host organism ( Parasitism ). If microorganisms can cause Disease in a host they are known as Pathogen s. Extremophiles See Also: Extremophile Certain microbes have adapted so that they can survive and even thrive in conditions that are normally fatal to most lifeforms. Microorganisms have been found around underwater Black Smoker s and in geothermal Hot Spring s, as well as in extremely salty bodies of water. Soil microbes The Nitrogen Cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. One way this can occur is in the nodules in the roots of Legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the genera ''Rhizobium'', ''Mesorhizobium'', ''Sinorhizobium'', ''Bradyrhizobium'', and ''Azorhizobium''.25 Symbiotic microbes Symbiotic microbes IMPORTANCE Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment, as they participate in the Earth's element cycles such as the Carbon Cycle and Nitrogen Cycle , as well as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all Ecosystem s, such as recycling other organisms' dead remains and waste products through Decomposition . Microbes also have an important place in most higher-order multicellular organisms as Symbionts . Many blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on an improper balance of microbes. Use in food See Also: Fermentation (food) Microorganisms are used in Brewing , Baking and other Food -making processes. The lactobacillus / lactobacilli and yeasts in sourdough bread are especially useful. To make bread, one uses a small amount (20-25%) of " Starter " dough which has the yeast Culture , and mixes it with flour and water. Some of this resulting dough is then saved to be used as the starter for subsequent batches. The culture can be kept at room temperature and continue yielding bread for years as long as it remains supplied with new flour and water. This technique was often used when "on the trail" in the American Old West . Microorganisms are also used to control the Fermentation process in the production of cultured Dairy Product s such as Yogurt and Cheese . The cultures also provide flavour and aroma, and to inhibit undesirable organisms.26 Use in energy See Also: Ethanol fermentation Microbes are used in fermentation to produce ethanol. Use in science Microbes are also essential tools in Biotechnology , Biochemistry , Genetics , and Molecular Biology . Microbes can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for living Fuel Cells , and as a solution for pollution. Use in warfare See Also: Biological warfare IMPORTANCE IN HUMAN HEALTH Human digestion Microorganisms can form an Endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger, organisms. For example, the bacteria that live within the human digestive system contribute to gut immunity, synthesise Vitamin s such as Folic Acid and Biotin , and ferment complex undigestible Carbohydrate s.27 Diseases and immunology Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include Bacteria , causing diseases such as Plague , Tuberculosis and Anthrax ; protozoa, causing diseases such as Malaria , Sleeping Sickness and Toxoplasmosis ; and also fungi causing diseases such as Ringworm , Candidiasis or Histoplasmosis . However, other diseases such as Influenza , Yellow Fever or AIDS are caused by Viruses , which are not living organisms and are not therefore microorganisms. As of 2007, no clear examples of archaean pathogens are known,28 although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some methanogens and human Periodontal Disease .29 HYGIENE See Also: Hygiene Hygiene is the avoidance of Infection or Food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, particularly Bacteria , are found practically everywhere, this means in most cases the reduction of harmful microorganisms to acceptable levels. However, in some cases it is required that an object or substance is completely sterile, i.e. devoid of all living entities and Virus es. A good example of this is a Hypodermic Needle . In food preparation microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods (such as the addition of Vinegar ), clean utensils used in preparation, short storage periods or by cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are Irradiation and the use of an Autoclave , which resembles a Pressure Cooker . There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in a sample of food, drinking water, equipment etc. Water samples can be filtrated through an extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed in a Nutrient Medium . Microorganisms on the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Harmful microorganisms can be detected in food by placing a sample in a Nutrient Broth designed to enrich the organisms in question. Various methods, such as Selective Media or PCR , can then be used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be tested by touching them with a solid piece of Nutrient Medium and then allowing the microorganisms to grow on it. There are no conditions where all microorganisms would grow, and therefore often several different methods are needed. For example, a food sample might be analyzed on three different Nutrient Medium s designed to indicate the presence of "total" Bacteria (conditions where many, but not all, bacteria grow), Mold s (conditions where the growth of Bacteria is prevented by e.g. Antibiotic s) and Coliform Bacteria (these indicate a sewage contamination). MICROORGANISMS IN FICTION Microorganisms have frequently played an important part in Science Fiction , both as agents of disease, and as entities in their own right. Some notable uses of microorganisms in fiction include:
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