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The first known medical school opened in Cnido in 700 BC . Alcmaeon , author of the first anatomical work, worked at this school, and it was here that the practice of observing patients was established. Hippocrates established his own medical school at Cos .Atlas of Anatomy, ed. Giunti Editorial Group, Taj Books LTD 2002, p. 9 Despite their known respect for Egyptian medicine, attempts to discern any particular influence on Greek practice at this early time have not been dramatically successful because of the lack of sources and the challenge of understanding ancient Medical Terminology . It is clear, however, that the Greeks definitely imported Egyptian substances into their Pharmacopoeia , and the influence becomes more pronounced after the establishment of a school of Greek medicine in Alexandria.Heinrich Von Staden, ''Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 1-26. HIPPOCRATES AND HIPPOCRATIC MEDICINE The Hippocratic Corpus contains the core medical texts of this school. Although once thought to have been written by Hippocrates himself, today, many scholars believe that these texts were written by a series of authors over several decades. Since it is impossible to determine which may have been written by Hippocrates himself, it is difficult to know which Hippocratic doctrines originated with him. The existence of the Hippocratic Oath implies that this "Hippocratic" medicine was practiced by a group of professional physicians bound (at least among themselves) by a strict ethical code. Aspiring students normally paid a fee for training (a provision is made for exceptions) and entered into a virtual family relationship with his teacher. This training included some oral instruction and probably hands-on experience as the teacher's assistant, since the Oath assumes that the student will be interacting with patients. The Oath also places limits on what the physician may or may not do ("To please no one will I prescribe a deadly drug") and intriguingly hints at the existence of another class of professional specialists, perhaps akin to surgeons ("I will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners, specialists in this art").Owsei Temkin, "What Does the Hippocratic Oath Say?," in ''"On Second Thought" and Other Essays in the History of Medicine'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), pp. 21-28. HUMOURISM , Yellow Bile , (red) Blood , and (green) Phlegm ]] The Hippocratics, along with many other Greeks, also believed in the theory of the or Vomiting , seemed advisable and generally useful as a source of use and understanding As to the exact relationship between the humours and illness, beliefs varied. The Hippocratics taught that one could only be in perfect health when the humours were in balance, known as Crasis or Eucrasia and the opposite state Dyscrasia . The natural tendency towards balance, or recovery, was called Pepsis or Coction . ARISTOTLE The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the most influential scholar of the living world from Antiquity . Though his early natural philosophy work was speculative, Aristotle's later biological writings demonstrate great concern for Empiricism , biological causation, and the diversity of life. Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 41 Aristotle did not experiment, however, holding that items display their real natures in their own environments, rather than controlled artificial ones. While in physics and chemistry, this assumption has been found unhelpful, in zoology and ethology it has not, and Aristotle's work "retains real interest". Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'' pp 247 He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and Attributes of Plant s and Animal s in the world around him, which he devoted considerable attention to Categorizing . In all, Aristotle classified 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, .Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 201-202; see also: Lovejoy, ''The Great Chain of Being'' . He held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not foreordained by that form. Yet another aspect of his biology divided souls into three groups: a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth; a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation; and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection. He attributed only the first to plants, the first two to animals, and all three to humans. Aristotle, ''De Anima'' II 3 Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, and like the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 45 Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon . Guthrie, ''A History of Greek Philosophy'' Vol. 1 pp. 348 Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum , Theophrastus , wrote a series of books on botany—the '' History Of Plants ''—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages . Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as ''carpos'' for fruit, and ''pericarpion'' for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the Efficient Cause . Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 90-91; Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'', p 46 .The biological/teleological ideas, of Aristotle and Theophrastus as well as their emphasis on a serious of axioms rather than on empirical observation, cannot be easily separated from their consequent impact on Western medicine. ALEXANDRIA '' (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BC]] Following Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'' pp 252 It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria was Herophilus Of Chalcedon , who corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between Vein s and Arteries , noting that the latter Pulse while the former do not. Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 56 In the same vein, he developed a Diagnostic technique which relied upon distinguishing different types of pulse. Barnes, ''Hellenistic Philosophy and Science'' pp 383 He, and his contemporary, Erasistratus Of Chios , researched the role of veins and Nerve s, mapping their courses across the body. Erasistratus connected the increased complexity of the surface of the human brain compared to other animals to its superior Intelligence . He sometimes employed Experiment s to further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird, and noting its weight loss between feeding times. Following his teacher's researches into Pneumatics , he claimed that the human system of Blood Vessel s was controlled by Vacuum s, drawing blood across the body. In Erisistratus' physiology, air enters the body, is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it is transformed into vital spirit, and is then pumped by the arteries throughout the body. Some of this vital spirit reaches the Brain , where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves. Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'', p 57 Herophilus and Erasistratus performed their experiments upon criminals given them by their Ptolemaic kings. They dissected these criminals alive, and "while they were still breathing they observed parts which nature had formerly concealed, and examined their position, colour, shape, size, arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, connection." Barnes, ''Hellenistic Philosophy and Science'', pp 383-384 Though a few ancient Atomists such as Lucretius challenged the Teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, Natural Theology ) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. In the words of Ernst Mayr , "Nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 90-94; quotation from p 91 Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'', p 252 INFLUENCE ON ROME & CHRISTIANITY Through long contact with Greek culture, and their eventual conquest of Greece, the Romans absorbed many of the Greek ideas on medicine. Early Roman reactions to Greek medicine ranged from enthusiasm to hostility, but eventually the Romans adopted a favorable view of Hippocratic medicine.von Staden, "Liminal Perils: Early Roman Receptions of Greek Medicine," in ''Tradition, Transmission, Transformation'', ed. F. Jamil Ragep and Sally P. Ragep with Steven Livesey (Leiden: Brill, 1996), pp. 369-418. This acceptance led to the spread of Greek medical theories throughout the Roman Empire, and thus a large portion of the West. Following the collapse of the Empire, however, official Catholic support for , died from its failure. SEE ALSO NOTES REFERENCES
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