Legal Citation Signals

When writing a legal argument, it is important to refer to primary sources. To assist readers in locating these sources, it is desirable to use a standardized citation format. ''See generally'' Harvard Law Review Association, ''The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation'' (18th ed. 2005). Note, however, that some courts may require any legal papers that are submitted to them to conform to a different citation format.

• signal is appropriate where the cited authority (i) directly states the proposition, (ii) identifies the source of a quotation, or (iii) identifies an authority referred to in the text.


• ''E.g.,'' means there is more legal authority supporting the same proposition as the original cited authority, but whose inclusion is not helpful, repetitive, or unnecessary.


• ''Accord'' usually is used to signify that some Persuasive Authority also supports the proposition of the quoted authority.


• ''See'' signifies that a particular source clearly supports the proposition, but usually not a concise quotation. ''See'' is generally the most common signal used in journal articles.


• ''See also'' signals support for a given proposition, but not as clearly as ''see''.


• ''Cf.'' is used when the cited authority supports a proposition different from the main proposition but sufficiently analogous to lend support. The citation's relevance will usually be clear to the reader only if it is explained in a parenthetical.


• ''See generally'' means that a source provides useful background information. Usually used in the citation of Secondary Source s.

• ''But see'' means that the original citation supports the proposition and that the following citation supports something else. There does not need to be a direct contradiction.


• ''But cf.'' the following citation supports a contrary position by way of analogy.


• ''Contra'' means that the following citation is in direct contradiction with the original source.

• ''Compare… with'' is a literal comparison between two or more sources. Like ''Cf.'', this signal is usually accompanied by parenthetical signals to clarify any contradiction.

• Legal Citation


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