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, commonly referred to as "'''high blood pressure'''" or '''HTN''', is a medical condition in which the
Blood Pressure is chronically elevated. While it is formally called '''arterial hypertension''', the word "hypertension" without a qualifier usually refers to
Arterial hypertension. Hypertension can be classified as either '''essential''' (primary) or '''secondary'''. Essential hypertension indicates that no specific medical cause can be found to explain a patient's condition.
Secondary Hypertension indicates that the high blood pressure is a result of (i.e. secondary to) another condition, such as kidney disease or certain tumors (especially of the adrenal gland). Persistent hypertension is one of the risk factors for
Stroke s,
Heart Attacks ,
Heart Failure and arterial
Aneurysm , and is a leading cause of
Chronic Renal Failure . Even moderate elevation of arterial blood pressure leads to shortened life expectancy. At severely high pressures, mean arterial pressures 50% or more above average, a person can expect to live no more than a few years unless appropriately treated.Textbook of Medical Physiology, 7th Ed., Guyton & Hall, Elsevier-Saunders, ISBN 0-7216-0240-1, page 220.
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http://jamaama-assnorg/cgi/content/full/289192560v1
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Chobanian AV et al
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JAMA
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The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report
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2003
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289
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2560-72
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12748199
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Sodium is the environmental factor that has received the greatest attention. It is to be noted that approximately 60% of the essential hypertension population is responsive to sodium intake. This is due to the fact that increasing amounts of salt in a person's bloodstream causes the body to
Draw More Water , increasing the pressure on the blood vessel walls.
Renin is a
Hormone secreted by the
Juxtaglomerular Cell s of the kidney and linked with
Aldosterone in a negative feedback loop. The range of renin activity observed in hypertensive subjects tends to be broader than in
Normotensive individuals. In consequence, some hypertensive patients have been defined as having low-renin and others as having essential hypertension. Low-renin hypertension is more common in African Americans than Caucasians and may explain why they tend to respond better to diuretic therapy than drugs that interfere with the renin-angiotensin system.
High Renin levels predispose to Hypertension:
Increased Renin --> Increased Angiotensin II --> Increased Vasoconstriction, Thirst/ADH and Aldosterone --> Increased Sodium Reabsorption in the Kidneys (DCT and CD) --> Increased Blood Pressure.
Insulin is a polypeptide
Hormone secreted by the
Pancreas . Its main purpose is to regulate the levels of
Glucose in the body
Antagonistic ally with
Glucagon through
Negative Feedback loops. Insulin also exhibits vasodilatory properties. In normotensive individuals, insulin may stimulate sympathetic activity without elevating mean arterial pressure. However, in more extreme conditions such as that of the metabolic syndrome, the increased sympathetic neural activity may over-ride the vasodilatory effects of insulin. Insulin resistance and/or
Hyperinsulinemia have been suggested as being responsible for the increased arterial pressure in some patients with hypertension. This feature is now widely recognized as part of
Syndrome X , or the
Metabolic Syndrome .
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http://wwwaafporg/afp/20020115/229html
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Silverberg DS, Iaina A and Oksenberg A
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American Family Physicians
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Treating Obstructive Sleep Apnea Improves Essential Hypertension and Quality of Life
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2002
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January
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65
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2
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229-36
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11820487
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Hypertension is one of the most common complex disorders, with genetic
Heritability averaging 30%. Data supporting this view emerge from animal studies as well as in population studies in humans. Most of these studies support the concept that the inheritance is probably multifactorial or that a number of different genetic defects each have an elevated blood pressure as one of their
Phenotypic expressions.
More than 50 genes have been examined in association studies with hypertension, and the number is constantly growing..
There are some anecdotal or transient causes of high blood pressure. These are not to be confused with the disease called hypertension in which there is an intrinsic physiopathological mechanism as described below.
Only in a small minority of patients with elevated arterial pressure, can a specific cause be identified. These individuals will probably have an
Endocrine or renal defect that, if corrected, could bring blood pressure back to normal values.
;Renal hypertension
:Hypertension produced by diseases of the
Kidney . This includes diseases such as
Polycystic Kidney Disease or chronic
Glomerulonephritis . Hypertension can also be produced by diseases of the
Renal Arteries supplying the kidney. This is known as
Renovascular Hypertension ; it is thought that decreased perfusion of renal tissue due to
Stenosis of a main or branch renal artery activates the renin-angiotensin system.
;Adrenal hypertension
:Hypertension is a feature of a variety of adrenal cortical abnormalities. In primary aldosteronism there is a clear relationship between the aldosterone-induced sodium retention and the hypertension.
:In patients with
Pheochromocytoma increased secretion of
Catecholamines such as
Epinephrine and
Norepinephrine by a tumor (most often located in the adrenal medulla) causes excessive stimulation of
receptors , which results in peripheral vasoconstriction and cardiac stimulation. This diagnosis is confirmed by demonstrating increased urinary excretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine and/or their metabolites (
Vanillylmandelic Acid ).
;
Coarctation Of The Aorta
;Diet
:The North American diet that is high in fat and salt has been proven to exacerbate hypertension. A study in the U.S. found that patients placed on a strict
Vegetarian diet showed a significant benefit to their condition over the one year. Certain medications, especially NSAIDS (Motrin/ibuprofen) and steroids can cause hypertension. Imported licorice (''Glycyrrhiza glabra'') inhibits the 11-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase enzyme (catalyzes the reaction of cortisol to cortison) which allows cortisol to stimulate the Mineralocorticoid Receptor (MR) which will lead to effects similar to hyperaldosteronism, which itself is a cause of hypertension.
Harrisons Internal Medicine, online edition (2007-04-14)
;Age
:Over time, the number of
Collagen fibers in artery and arteriole walls increases, making blood vessels stiffer. With the reduced elasticity comes a smaller cross-sectional area in systole, and so a raised mean arterial blood pressure.
;
Acromegaly
Most of the secondary mechanisms associated with hypertension are generally fully understood, and are outlined at
Secondary Hypertension . However, those associated with essential (primary) hypertension are far less understood. What is known is that
Cardiac Output is raised early in the disease course, with
Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) normal; over time cardiac output drops to normal levels but TPR is increased. Three theories have been proposed to explain this:
- Inability of the kidneys to excrete sodium, resulting in Natriuretic factors such as Atrial Natriuretic Factor being secreted to promote salt excretion with the side-effect of raising total peripheral resistance.
- An overactive Renin / Angiotension System leads to Vasoconstriction and retention of sodium and water. The increase in blood volume leads to hypertension.
- An overactive Sympathetic Nervous System , leading to increased stress responses.
It is also known that hypertension is highly heritable and Polygenic (caused by more than one gene) and a few candidate Genes have been postulated in the etiology of this condition.123
Hypertension is usually found incidentally - "case finding" - by healthcare professionals during a routine checkup. The only test for hypertension is a blood pressure measurement. Hypertension in isolation usually produces no symptoms although some people report headaches, fatigue, dizziness, blurred vision, facial flushing or
Tinnitus .
4
Malignant Hypertension (or accelerated hypertension) is distinct as a late phase in the condition, and may present with headaches, blurred vision and end-organ damage.
Hypertension is often confused with mental tension, stress and anxiety. While chronic anxiety is associated with poor outcomes in people with hypertension, it alone does not cause it. Accelerated hypertension is associated with somnolence, confusion, visual disturbances, and nausea and vomiting (hypertensive encephalopathy).
5
Hypertension is rarely severe enough to cause symptoms. These typically only surface with a
Systolic Blood Pressure over 240 mmHg and/or a
Diastolic Blood Pressure over 120 mmHg. These pressures without signs of end-organ damage (such as renal failure) are termed "accelerated" hypertension. When end-organ damage is possible or already ongoing, but in absence of raised
Intracranial Pressure , it is called
Hypertensive Emergency . Hypertension under this circumstance needs to be controlled, but prolonged hospitalization is not necessarily required. When hypertension causes increased intracranial pressure, it is called
Malignant Hypertension . Increased intracranial pressure causes
Papilledema , which is visible on
Ophthalmoscopic examination of the
Retina .
While elevated blood pressure alone is not an illness, it often requires treatment due to its short- and long-term effects on many organs. The risk is increased for:
See Also: Hypertension of pregnancy
Although few women of childbearing age have high blood pressure, up to 10% develop ,
HELLP Syndrome and
Eclampsia . Follow-up and control with medication is therefore often necessary.
As with adults, blood pressure is a variable parameter in children. It varies between individuals and within individuals from day to day and at various times of the day. The epidemic of childhood obesity, the risk of developing left ventricular hypertrophy, and evidence of the early development of atherosclerosis in children would make the detection of and intervention in childhood hypertension important to reduce long-term health risks; however, supporting data are lacking.
Most childhood hypertension, particularly in preadolescents, is secondary to an underlying disorder. Renal parenchymal disease is the most common (60 to 70 percent) cause of hypertension. Adolescents usually have primary or essential hypertension, making up 85 to 95 percent of cases.
6
Diagnosis of hypertension is generally on the basis of a persistently high blood pressure. Usually this requires three separate measurements at least one week apart. Exceptionally, if the elevation is extreme, or end-organ damage is present then the diagnosis may be applied and treatment commenced immediately.
Obtaining reliable blood pressure measurements relies on following several rules and understanding the many factors that influence blood pressure reading
7.
For instance, measurements in control of hypertension should be at least 1 hour after caffeine, 30 minutes after smoking and without any stress. Cuff size is also important. The bladder should encircle and cover two-thirds of the length of the arm. The patient should be sitting for a minimum of five minutes. The patient should not be on any adrenergic stimulants, such as those found in many cold medications.
When taking manual measurements, the person taking the measurement should be careful to inflate the cuff suitably above anticipated systolic pressure. The person should inflate the cuff to 200
MmHg and then slowly release the air while palpating the radial pulse. After one minute, the cuff should be reinflated to 30 mmHg higher than the pressure at which the radial pulse was no longer palpable. A stethoscope should be placed lightly over the brachial artery. The cuff should be at the level of the heart and the cuff should be deflated at a rate of 2 to 3 mmHg/s. Systolic pressure is the pressure reading at the onset of the
Sounds described by
Korotkoff (Phase one). Diastolic pressure is then recorded as the pressure at which the sounds disappear (K5) or sometimes the K4 point, where the sound is abruptly muffled. Two measurements should be made at least 5 minutes apart, and, if there is a discrepancy of more than 5 mmHg, a third reading should be done. The readings should then be averaged. An initial measurement should include both arms. In elderly patients who particularly when treated may show orthostatic hypotension, measuring lying sitting and standing BP may be useful. The BP should at some time have been measured in each arm, and the higher pressure arm preferred for subsequent measurements.
BP varies with time of day, as may the effectiveness of treatment, and
Archetypes used to record the data should include the time taken. Analysis of this is rare at present.
Automated machines are commonly used and reduce the variability in manually collected readings
8. Routine measurements done in medical offices of patients with known hypertension may incorrectly diagnose 20% of patients with uncontrolled hypertension
9
Once the diagnosis of hypertension has been made it is important to attempt to exclude or identify reversible (secondary) causes.
Tests are undertaken to identify possible causes of secondary hypertension, and seek evidence for end-organ damage to the heart itself or the eyes (retina) and kidneys. Diabetes and raised cholesterol levels being additional risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease are also tested for as they will also require management.
Blood Test s commonly performed include:
Additional tests often include:
- Testing of urine samples for Proteinuria - again to pick up underlying kidney disease or evidence of hypertensive renal damage.
- Electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG) - for evidence of the heart being under strain from working against a high blood pressure. Also may show resulting thickening of the heart muscle ( Left Ventricular Hypertrophy ) or of the occurrence of previous silent cardiac disease (either subtle electrical conduction disruption or even a myocardial infarction).
- Chest X-ray - again for signs of cardiac enlargement or evidence of Cardiac Failure .
The level of blood pressure regarded as deleterious has been revised down during years of epidemiological studies. A widely quoted and important series of such studies is the . The results from Framingham and of similar work in
Busselton, Western Australia have been widely applied. To the extent that people are similar this seems reasonable, but there are known to be genetic variations in the most effective drugs for particular sub-populations. Recently (
2004 ), the Framingham figures have been found to overestimate risks for the UK population considerably. The reasons are unclear. Nevertheless the Framingham work has been an important element of UK health policy.
Doctors recommend
Weight Loss and regular
Exercise as the first steps in treating mild to moderate hypertension. These steps are highly effective in reducing blood pressure, although most patients with moderate or severe hypertension end up requiring indefinite drug therapy to bring their blood pressure down to a safe level. Discontinuing
Smoking does not directly reduce blood pressure, but is very important for people with hypertension because it reduces the risk of many dangerous outcomes of hypertension, such as stroke and heart attack. An increase in daily calcium intake has also been shown to be highly effective in reducing blood pressure.
Mild hypertension is usually treated by
Diet , exercise and improved physical fitness. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables and low fat or fat-free dairy foods and moderate or low in sodium lowers blood pressure in people with hypertension. This diet is known as the
DASH Diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension), and is based on National Institutes of Health sponsored research. Dietary
Sodium (salt) may worsen hypertension in some people and reducing salt intake decreases blood pressure in a third of people. Many people choose to use a
Salt Substitute to reduce their salt intake. Regular mild exercise improves blood flow, and helps to lower blood pressure. In addition, fruits, vegetables, and nuts have the added benefit of increasing dietary
Potassium , which offsets the effect of sodium and acts on the kidney to decrease blood pressure.
Reduction of environmental stressors such as
High Sound Levels and
Over-illumination can be an additional method of ameliorating hypertension.
Biofeedback is also used
particularly device guided paced breathing [http://www.emaxhealth.com/106/5912.html [http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/539099]
See Also: Race and health
In a summary of recent research Jules P. Harrell, Sadiki Hall, and James Taliaferro describe how a growing body of research has explored the impact of encounters with
Racism or
Discrimination on physiological activity. "Several of the studies suggest that higher blood pressure levels are associated with the tendency not to recall or report occurrences identified as racist and discriminatory."
Physiological Responses to Racism and Discrimination: An Assessment of the Evidence In other words, failing to recognize instances of racism has a direct impact on the blood pressure of the person experiencing the racist event. Investigators have reported that physiological arousal is associated with laboratory analogues of ethnic discrimination and mistreatment.
The interaction between high blood pressure and racism has also been documented in studies by , Santa Barbara 93106, USA.
See Also: Antihypertensive
There are many classes of medications for treating hypertension, together called
Antihypertensive s, which — by varying means — act by lowering blood pressure. Evidence suggests that reduction of the blood pressure by 5-6 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 40%, of coronary heart disease by 15-20%, and reduces the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from vascular disease.
The aim of treatment should be blood pressure control to <140/90 mmHg for most patients, and lower in certain contexts such as diabetes or kidney disease (some medical professionals recommend keeping levels below 120/80 mmHg).
{Link without Title} Each added drug may reduce the systolic blood pressure by 5-10 mmHg, so often multiple drugs are necessary to achieve blood pressure control.
Commonly used drugs include:
- ACE Inhibitor s such as Captopril , Enalapril , Fosinopril (Monopril), Lisinopril (Zestril), Quinapril , Ramipril (Altace)
- (Micardis, Pritor), Irbesartan (Avapro), Losartan (Cozaar), Valsartan (Diovan), Candesartan (Atacand)
- Alpha Blocker s such as Doxazosin , Prazosin , or Terazosin
- Beta Blocker s such as Atenolol , Labetalol , Metoprolol (Lopressor, Toprol-XL), Propranolol .
- (Norvasc), Diltiazem , Verapamil
- Direct Renin Inhibitor s such as Aliskiren (Tekturna)
- , Chlortalidone , Hydrochlorothiazide (also called HCTZ)
- Combination products (which usually contain HCTZ and one other drug)
A
Randomized Controlled Trial by the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents reported the influence of patient age and race on the proportion of patients whose blood pressure was controlled by different agents.
1112 Summary For example:
Which type of many medications should be used initially for hypertension has been the subject of several large studies and various national guidelines.
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http://contentnejmorg/cgi/content/abstract/348/7/583
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Wing LM, Reid CM, Ryan P et al
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NEJM
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A comparison of outcomes with angiotensin-converting--enzyme inhibitors and diuretics for hypertension in the elderly
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2003
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Feb 13
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348
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7
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583-92
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PMID 12584366
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Due to their metabolic impact (hypercholesterinemia, impairment of glucose tolerance, increased risk of developing
Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 ), the use of thiazides as first line treatment for essential hypertension has been repeatedly questioned and strongly disencouraged.
17 18 19
The risk of
Beta-blocker s provoking
Type 2 Diabetes led to their downgrading to fourth-line therapy in the United Kingdom in June 2006
21, in the revised national guidelines.
22
The ''Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure'' (JNC 7) in the United States recommends starting with a
Thiazide Diuretic if single therapy is being initiated and another medication is not indicated.
