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Human sacrifice is the act of killing a human being for the purposes of making an offering to a deity or other, normally supernatural, power. It was practiced in many ancient Culture s. The practice has varied between different cultures, with some like the Mayans and Aztec s being notorious for their ritual killings, while others have looked down on the practice as primitive. Victims were Ritual ly killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease God s or Spirit s. Victims ranged from prisoners to infants to Vestal Virgin s, who suffered such fates as burning, beheading and being buried alive. Because information on certain cultures' sacrificial tendencies often comes from outside sources ( Greeks and Romans for Celts and medieval Christians for Norsemen , for example) who may have had ulterior Propaganda motives, some contemporary Historian s consider certain allegations of human Sacrifice suspect. Over time human sacrifice has become less common around the world, and sacrifices are now very rare. Most religions condemn the practice and present-day laws generally treat it as a criminal matter. Nonetheless it is still occasionally seen today, especially in the least developed areas of the world where traditional beliefs persist. MAGICAL THINKING RATIONALE FOR THE SACRIFICES Ritual sacrifice may involve offering to deities as payment for favorable interventions in an event of special importance, to forestall unfavorable events, or to purchase disclosures about the physical world. Human sacrifice has been practiced on a number of different occasions and in many different cultures. These include:
SACRIFICE IN THE BIBLE All three Abrahamic religions hold that the Bible condemns human sacrifice. Jewish , Christian , Muslim , and modern historians' views on this subject can be found in the article on the Binding Of Isaac . References in the Bible point to an awareness of human sacrifice in the history of ancient near-eastern practice. During a battle with the Israelites the king of Moab gives his firstborn son and heir as a whole burnt offering (''olah'', as used of the Temple sacrifice)."Why King Mesha of Moab Sacrificed His Oldest Son", Baruch Margalit, Biblical Archaeology Review, Nov/Dec 1986. {Link without Title} It is apparently effective, as the Israelites turn back (2 Kings 3.27). Also, in the time of the prophet Micah he is able to say, "Shall I give my firstborn for my sin?"(Micah 6.7). So it is possible that the offering of a firstborn son or other human victim developed into the whole burnt offering of the Temple service. In , Biblical Archaeology Review , June 1993. Sacrifice at Carthage—Religious Rite or Population Control?", Lawrence E. Stager and Samuel R. Wolff, Biblical Archaeology Review, Jan/Feb 1984.[http://members.bib-arch.org/nph-proxy.pl/000000A/http/www.basarchive.org/bswbSearch.asp=3fPubID=3dBSBA&Volume=3d10&Issue=3d1&ArticleID=3d2&UserID=3d0& In the Christian religion the belief developed that the story of Isaac's binding was a foreshadowing of the sacrifice of Jesus , whom Christians believe was God's only son and simultaneously God Himself, and who gave up his life so that sins could be forgiven. There is a tradition that the site of the binding of Isaac, Moriah , was also the city of Jesus's future crucifixion, i.e. Jerusalem .http://"Voices From the Children of Abraham", {Link without Title} However no archaeological or historical evidence supports this assertion. Another instance of human sacrifice mentioned in the Bible is the sacrifice of this was a gross violation of God's law, and this part of the Bible illustrates the terrible tragedy of human sacrifice. However most scholars believe the passage suggests the sacrifice was accepted by God."Why the Deuteronomist Told about the Sacrifice of Jephthah's Daughter", Journal for the Study of the Old Testament,Sage Publications, p7, Others point out the complete lack of censure by God of Jephthah and the sacrifice of his daughter in the biblical account."Did Jephthah Kill his Daughter?", Solomon Landers, Biblical Archaeology Review, August 1991.[http://members.bib-arch.org/nph-proxy.pl/000000A/http/www.basarchive.org/bswbSearch.asp=3fPubID=3dBSBR&Volume=3d7&Issue=3d4&ArticleID=3d15&UserID=3d0& The majority of the early Christian Church Fathers saw the sacrifice of Jepthah's virgin daughter as foreshadowing, like Isaac, the death of Jesus Christ not least because Jepthah's vow in the biblical account was made whilst under the influence of the Holy Spirit (Judges 11:29). The beliefs of most denominations of which they believe is really the body and blood of Jesus Christ."The Sacrifice of the Mass", Catholic Encyclopedia. of the Mass", Orthodox Church of America.[http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=202&SID=3 ANCIENT EGYPT There may be evidence of Retainer Sacrifice in the early dynastic period at Abydos , when on the death of a King he would be accompanied with servants, and possibly high officials, who would continue to serve him in eternal life. The skeletons found show no obvious signs of trauma, leading to speculation that the giving up of life to serve the King may have been a voluntary act, possibly carried out in a drug induced state. At about 2800BC any possible evidence of such practices disappears, though echoes are perhaps to be seen in the burial of statues of servants in Old Kingdom tombs."Human Sacrifice", retrieved 12 May 2007. - Life and Death at the Dawning of Egyptian Civilization", National Geographic, April 2005, retrieved 12 May 2007.[http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0504/feature7/ PHOENICIA AND CARTHAGE According to Roman sources, Phoenicia ns and Carthaginians sacrificed infants to their gods. The bones of numerous infants have been found in Carthaginian archaeological sites in modern times but the subject of Child Sacrifice is controversial.http://www.phoenicia.org/childsacrifice.html Plutarch (ca. 46–120 AD) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian , Orosius , Diodorus Siculus and Philo . Livy and Polybius do not. The Hebrew Bible also mentions what appears to be child sacrifice practiced at a place called the Tophet ("roasting place") by the Caananite s, ancestors of the Carthaginians, and by some Israelites. Some of these sources suggest that babies were roasted to death on a heated bronze statue. According to Diodorus Siculus : The accuracy of such stories is disputed by some modern historians and archaeologists.Fantar, M’Hamed Hassine. Archaeology Odyssey Nov/Dec 2000, pp. 28-31 Nevertheless, several apparent "Tophets" have been identified, including a large one in Carthage. SACRIFICE IN THE CLASSICAL WORLD dies by the hand of Neoptolemus on the tomb of Achilles .]] Other than three possible sites in Crete , and allusions to the practice in classical mythology, archaeologists have been unable to find any evidence that Ancient Greeks practiced human sacrifice. The Deus Ex Machina salvation in some versions of Iphigeneia (who was about to be sacrificed by her father Agamemnon ) and her replacement with a deer by the goddess Artemis , may be a vestigial memory of the abandonment and discrediting of the practice of human sacrifice among the Greeks in favor of animal sacrifice. Many scholars have suggested a possible analogy with the story of Isaac 's attempted sacrifice by his father Abraham in the Bible , which was also stopped at the last minute (though it had first been encouraged) by divine intervention. Early Romans practiced various forms of human sacrifice in their first centuries; from Etruscans (or, according to other sources, Sabellians ), they adopted the original form of Gladiator ial combat where the victim was slain in a ritual battle. During the early Republic , criminals who had broken their oaths or defrauded others were sometimes "given to the gods" (that is, executed as a human sacrifice). The '' Rex Nemorensis '' was an escaped Slave who became priest of the goddess Diana at Nemi by killing his predecessor. Prisoners Of War and Vestal Virgin s were buried alive as offerings to Manes and ''Di Inferi'' (gods of the underworld). Archaeologist s have found sacrificial victims buried in building foundations. Ordinarily, deceased Romans were Cremated rather than buried. Captured enemy leaders, after the victorious general's Triumph , would be ritually strangled in front of a statue of Mars , the war god. Religious practices changed over the centuries. According to Pliny The Elder , human sacrifice was abolished by a Senatorial decree in 97 BCE , although by this time it was so rare that the decree was wholly symbolic. Most of the rituals turned to Animal Sacrifice like '' Taurobolium '' or became merely symbolic. A Roman general might bury a statue of his likeness to thank the gods for victory. Dionysius Of Halicarnassus Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
CHINESE SACRIFICE The ancient Chinese are known to have made sacrifices of young men and women to river Deities , and to have buried slaves alive with their owners upon death as part of a funeral service. This was especially prevalent during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. During the Warring States period, Ximen Bao of Wei demonstrated to the villagers that sacrifice to river deities was actually a ploy by crooked priests to pocket money.http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_26349.htm In Chinese lore, Ximen Bao is regarded as a folk hero who pointed out the absurdity of human sacrifice. The sacrifice of a high-ranking male's slaves, Concubine s or servants upon his death (called Xun Zang 殉葬 or more specifically Sheng Xun 生殉) was a more common form. The stated purpose is to provide companion for the dead in afterlife. In earlier times the victims were either killed or buried alive, while later they were usually forced to commit suicide. Funeral human sacrifice was abolished by Qin Dynasty in 384 BC . Afterwards it became relatively rare throughout central parts of China.. However, Hongwu Emperor of Ming Dynasty revived it in 1395 when his second son died and two of the prince's concubines were sacrificed. In 1464 , Zhengtong Emperor in his will forbade it for Ming emperors and princes. Human sacrifice was also practiced by the Manchus . Following Emperor Nurhaci 's death, Lady Abahai and his two lesser consorts committed suicide. In Qing Dynasty , sacrifice of slaves was banned by Emperor Kangxi in 1673 . CELTIC SACRIFICE See Also: Celts and human sacrifice As written in Roman sources, , the slaves and dependants of Gauls of rank would be burnt along with the body of their master as part of his funerary rites."Gaius Julius Caesar Commentaries on the Gallic War", Book VI:19, translated by W.A. McDevitte and W.S. Bohn, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1869. {Link without Title} He also describes how they built wicker figures that were filled with living humans and then burned."Gaius Julius Caesar
Different gods reportedly required different kind of sacrifices. Victims meant for Esus were Hanged , those meant for Taranis Immolated and those for Teutates Drowned . Some, like the Lindow Man , may have gone to their deaths willingly. Archaeological evidence from the British Isles seems to indicate that human sacrifice may have been practiced, over times long pre-dating any contact with Rome. Human remains have been found at the foundations of structures from the Neolithic time to the Roman era, with injuries and in positions that argue for their being foundation sacrifices. Similarly, additional human remains in the tombs of aged men show signs of having been killed to be buried in the grave. VIKING AGE SACRIFICE (detail of "" by Carl Larsson , 1915)]] According to Norse Mythology , Odin hanged himself from the world-tree Yggdrasil for nine nights to attain divine wisdom. Medieval Christian sources refer to Norsemen sacrificing prisoners by hanging them from trees, but the true extent of this behavior is unclear. Norse warriors were sometimes buried with enslaved women with the belief that these women would become their wives in Valhalla . A detailed eyewitness account of such a burial was given by Ahmad Ibn Fadlan as part of his account of an Embassy to the Volga Bulgars in 921. In his description of the funeral of a Scandinavia n Chieftain , a slave volunteers to die with a Norseman. After ten days of festivities, she is stabbed to death by an old woman, a sort of priestess who is referred to as Völva or "Angel of Death", and Burnt Together With The Deceased In His Boat . Adam Von Bremen recorded human sacrifices to Odin in 11th Century Sweden, at the Temple At Uppsala , a tradition which is confirmed by Gesta Danorum and the Norse Saga s. According to the Ynglinga Saga , king Domalde was sacrificed there in the hope to bring greater future harvests and the total domination of all future wars. The same saga also relates that Domalde's descendant king Aun sacrificed nine of his own sons to Odin in exchange for longer life, until the Swedes stopped him from sacrificing his last son, Egil . Heidrek in the Hervarar Saga agrees to the sacrifice of his son in exchange for the command over a fourth of the men of Reidgotaland . With these, he seizes the entire kingdom and prevents the sacrifice of his son, dedicating those fallen in his rebellion to Odin instead. PRE-COLUMBIAN SACRIFICE ]] Some of the most famous forms of ancient human sacrifice were performed by various Pre-Columbian Civilization s in the Americas . Mixtec The Mixtec players of the Ulama Game were sacrificed when the game was used to resolve a dispute between cities. The rulers would play a game instead of going to battle. The losing ruler would be sacrificed. The ruler "Eight Deer" was considered a great ball player and won several cities this way, until he lost a ball game and was sacrificed. Maya The Maya held the belief that Cenote s or limestone sinkholes were portals to the underworld and sacrificed human beings to please the water god Chaac . The most notable example of this is the " Sacred Cenote " at Chichen Itza where extensive excavations have recovered the remains of 42 individuals, half of them under twenty years old. |
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