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-->1 and to distinguish different movements of the body. An understanding of these terms is necessary to study the human body in depth. Many of these terms are also applicable in animal anatomy ( Zootomy ). ORIGIN OF TERMS Many English anatomical terms originate from Latin and Greek and were even in use 2000 years ago. It is helpful to know that Latin words change their endings to pluralize words. Common conversions include words singular words ending in –us change to –i, -um to –a, and –a to –ae. Occasionally, newer terms have been introduced and are used alongside older terms. Some terms are also eponymous, but many of these have been replaced with more descriptive words and phrases. ANATOMICAL BODY POSITION The anatomical position is the position that provides a reference point for describing the structures of the body. In this position, the body is erect and the face forward. The feet are together, flat on the floor and the toes pointing forward. The arms are down at the sides with the palms turned forward with the thumb side of the hand away from the body. When the body lying face down in the anatomical position, this is the prone position. When the body is lying face up, this is the supine position. BODY LANDMARKS Anatomists use specific terms to indicate visible areas of the body. The cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is further differentiated into the cranium (skull), facies (face), frons (forehead), oculus (eye area), auris (ear), bucca (cheek), nausus (nose), oris (mouth), and mentis (chin). The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region. On the trunk of the body, the chest is referred to as the thoracic area. The shoulder in general is the acromial, while the curve of the shoulder is the deltoid. The back as a general area is the dorsum or dorsal area, and the lower back as the lumbus or lumbar region. The shoulderblades are the scapular area and the breastbone is the sternal region. The abdominal area is the region between the chest and the pelvis. The breast is called the mamma or mammary, the armpit as the axilla and axillary, and the navel as the umbilicus and umbilical. The pelvis is the lower torso, between the abdomen and the thighs. The groins, where the thigh joins the trunk, are the inguen and inguinal area. The entire arm is referred to as the brachium and brachial, the front of the elbow as the antecubitis and antecubital, the back of the elbow as the olecranon or olecranal, the forearm as the antebrachium and antebrachial, the wrist as the carpus and carpal area, the hand as the manus and manual, the palm as the palma and palmar, the thumb as the pollex, and the fingers as the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal. The buttocks are the gluteus or gluteal region and the pubic area is the pubis. Anatomists divide the lower limb into the thigh, the part of the limb between the hip and the knee, and the leg, which refers only to the area of the limb between the knee and the ankle. The thigh is the femur and the femoral region. The kneecap is the patella and patellar while the back of the knee is the popliteus and popliteal area. The leg (between the knee and the ankle) is the crus and crural area, the outside of the leg is the peroneal area, and the calf is the sura and sural region. The ankle is the tarsus and tarsal, and the heel is the calcaneus or calcaneal. The foot is the pes and pedal region, and the sole of the foot the planta and plantar. As with the fingers, the toes are also called the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal area. The big toe is referred to as the hallux. USE OF THE TERMS RIGHT AND LEFT When anatomists refer to the right and left of the body, it is in reference to the right and left of the subject, not the right and left of the observer. When observing a body in the anatomical position, the right body is on the observer’s left and vice versa. REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS Anatomists and medical personnel divide the 'Abdomen Proper' into smaller regions to facilitate study and discussion. The two most common schemes are division into four quadrants and also into nine areas. The abdominopelvic quadrants evenly divide the space of the torso below the diaphragm into four. They are referred to simply by location: the right upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, and left lower quadrant. The right upper quadrant contains the right portion of the liver, the gallbladder, right kidney, a small portion of the stomach, portions of the ascending and transverse colon and parts of small intestine. The left upper quadrant is the location of the left portion of the liver, the larger portion of the stomach, the pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of the transverse and descending colon and parts of the small intestine. In the right lower quadrant sits the cecum, appendix, part of the small intestines, the right reproductive organs, and the right ureter. The left lower quadrant houses the majority of the small intestine, some of the large intestine, the left reproductive organs and the left ureter. The nine divisions (sometimes also called nine quadrants, though the word 'quadrant' itself means division into four equal parts) of the abdominopelvic region are smaller than the four abdominopelvic quadrants and allow more detailed discussion of the area. These are the right hypochondriac, right lumbar, right inguinal (or right iliac), epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric (or pubic), left hypochondriac, left lumbar, and left inguinal (or left iliac). The right and left hypochondriac regions are the outer and uppermost segments. The epigastric lies between these two. The outer middle sections are the right lumbar and left lumbar regions, with the umbilical region between them. The lowest portions are the right and left iliac region with the hypogastric between these. The Perineum is considered to be the 10th division. ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS Anatomists use specific directional terms to describe structures of the body. These terms always use anatomical position as a point of reference, even if the structure or body described is in another position. Some terms have different connotations in veterinary anatomy. Anterior and ventral both mean toward the front of the body, while posterior and dorsal mean the back of the body. These terms are almost always used in pairs, with anterior pairing with posterior and ventral pairing with dorsal. The nose is on the anterior (ventral) surface of the head. The spine is on the posterior (dorsal) side of the body. (In veterinary anatomy, ventral is abdominal side of the animal and dorsal is the backside, while anterior means toward the head while posterior means toward the tail.) The terms superior, cranial, and cephalic all mean toward the head or the upper part of a structure while inferior and caudal refer to the lower part of a structure or away from the head. For example, the shoulder is superior (cranial) to the elbow and the elbow is inferior (caudal) to the shoulder. These terms are also used in their respective pairs: superior with inferior and cranial or cephalic with caudal. (The terms superior and inferior are not used in veterinary anatomy.) Proximal means closer to the trunk (torso) while distal is away from the trunk. The statement “the knee is proximal to the foot” means the knee is closer to the torso than the foot. Conversely, the foot is distal to the knee. Medial describes a structure toward the midline of the body and lateral away from that midline. Intermediate describes a structure between a medial and a lateral structure. The nose is medial to the ears while the ears are lateral to the nose. The cheeks are intermediate between the nose and the ears. Superficial means close to the surface of the body while deep means away from the surface. The brain is deep to the skull while the skull is superficial to the brain. PLANES OF THE BODY |
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