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HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT The homopolar generator was developed first by Michael Faraday during his memorable experiments in 1831 . It is sometimes called the Faraday disc in his honor. It was the beginning of modern Dynamo s — that is, Electrical Generator s which operate using a Magnetic Field . It was very inefficient and was not used as a practical power source, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, and led the way for Commutated Direct Current dynamos and then Alternating Current alternators. Long after the original Faraday disc had been abandoned as a practical generator, a modified version combining the magnet and disc in a single rotating part (the ''rotor'') was developed. Sometimes the name ''homopolar generator'' is reserved for this configuration. One of the earliest patents on the general type of homopolar generators was attained by Charles E. Ball (US238631; March 1881). Other early patents for homopolar generators were awarded to S. Z. De Ferranti and C. Batchelor separately. Nikola Tesla was interested in the Faraday disc and conducted work with homopolar generators . He eventually patented an improved version of the device and his ("Dynamo Electric Machine") describes an arrangement of two parallel discs on separate, parallel axles, and joined like Pulley s by a metallic belt. This would have greatly reduced the frictional losses caused by sliding contacts. Later, patents were awarded to C. P. Steinmetz and E. Thomson for their work with homopolar generators. The Forbes dynamo, developed by the Scottish electrical engineer George Forbes , was in widespread use during the beginning of the 20th century. Much of the development done in homopolar generators was patented by J. E. Noeggerath and R. Eickemeyer . One of the larger homopolar generators that was produced by Parker Kinetic Designs via the collaboration of Richard Marshall , William Weldon , and Herb Woodson . Parker Kinetic Designs have produced devices which can produce five Ampere s. Another large homopolar generator was built by Sir Mark Oliphant at the Research School Of Physical Sciences And Engineering , Australian National University . It produced 500 mega Joule s and was used as an extremely high-current source for experimentation from 1962. It was disassembled in 1986. Oliphant's construction was capable of supplying currents of up to 2 megaamperes. DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION How magnetism makes current Magnetism can make, or '' Induce '', electric current only when the conductor that carries the current and the Lines Of Magnetic Force move so that they cut across each other. The direction in which current flows in the moving conductor can be learned with Fleming's Right Hand Rule for generators. Disk type generator The device consists of a Conducting Flywheel rotating in a Magnetic Field with one electrical contact near the axis and the other near the periphery. It has been used for generating very high currents at low voltages in applications such as Welding , Electrolysis and Railgun research. In pulsed energy applications, the Angular Momentum of the rotor is used to store energy over a long period and then release it in a short time. In contrast to other types of generators, the output voltage never changes polarity. The charge separation results from the Lorentz Force on the free charges in the disk. The motion is azimuthal and the field is axial, so the Electromotive Force is radial. The electrical contacts must be made through a " Brush " or Slip Ring , which results in large losses at the low voltages generated. Some of these losses can be reduced by using Mercury or other easily liquified metal ( Gallium ) as the "brush", and a vertical-axis generator could allow the entire rim of a disk to be "brushed" by liquid metal. The table below shows the results of different relative motions of the parts of a circular homopolar generator . If the magnetic field is provided by a permanent Magnet , the generator works regardless of whether the magnet is fixed to the stator or rotates with the disc. Before the discovery of the Electron and the Lorentz Force Law , the Phenomenon was inexplicable and was known as the Faraday Paradox . The voltage is "undetermined" when both the indicator and the disk are rotated, regardless of whether the magnet is moving. There is an EMF and a nonuniform charge density, but no reaction of the indicator. An electric field is generated, but no voltage is brought out for display. This differs from the different relative motions of the parts of a rectilinear homopolar generator (where the answer would be "No"). Drum type generator A drum type HPG has a magnetic field (B) that radiates radially from the center of the drum and induces voltage (V) down the length of the drum. ASTROPHYSICAL UNIPOLAR INDUCTORS Unipolar inductors occur in astrophysics where a conductor rotates through a magnetic field, for example, the movement of the highly conductive Plasma in a cosmic body's Ionosphere through its Magnetic Field . In their book, ''Cosmical Electrodynamics'', Hannes Alfvén and Carl-Gunne Fälthammar write: :"Since cosmical clouds of ionized gas are generally magnetized, their motion produces induced electric fields For example the motion of the magnetized interplanetary plasma produces electric fields that are essential for the production of aurora and magnetic storms" [.. :".. the rotation of a conductor in a magnetic field produces an electric field in the system at rest. This phenomenon is well known from laboratory experiments and is usually called 'homopolar ' or 'unipolar' induction. Hannes Alfvén and Carl-Gunne Fälthammar, ''Cosmical Electrodynamics'' (1963) 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press. See sec. 1.3.1. Induced electric field in uniformly moving matter. Unipolar inductors have been associated with the aurorae on Uranus,Hill, T. W.; Dessler, A. J.; Rassbach, M. E., " Aurora on Uranus - A Faraday disc dynamo mechanism " (1983) ''Planetary and Space Science'' (ISSN 0032-0633), vol. 31, Oct. 1983, p. 1187-1198 binary stars,Hannes Alfvén, " Sur l'origine de la radiation cosmique " (On the origin of cosmic radiation)" Comptes Rendus, 204, pp.1180-1181 (1937) Hakala, Pasi ''et al'', " Spin up in RX J0806+15: the shortest period binary " (2003) ''Monthly Notice of the Royal Astronomical Society'', Volume 343, Issue 1, pp. L10-L14 black holes,Burns, M. L.; Lovelace, R. V. E., " Theory of electron-positron showers in double radio sources " (1982) ''Astrophysical Journal'', Part 1, vol. 262, Nov. 1, 1982, p. 87-99 Shatskii, A. A., " Unipolar Induction of a Magnetized Accretion Disk around a Black Hole ", (2003) ''Astronomy Letters'', vol. 29, p. 153-157 galaxies,Per Carlqvist, " Cosmic electric currents and the generalized Bennett relation " (1988) ''Astrophysics and Space Science'' (ISSN 0004-640X), vol. 144, no. 1-2, May 1988, p. 73-84. the Jupiter Io system,Goldreich, P.; Lynden-Bell, D., " Io, a jovian unipolar inductor " (1969) ''Astrophys. J.'', vol. 156, p. 59-78 (1969). Strobel, Darrell F.; ''et al'', " Hubble Space Telescope Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph Search for an Atmosphere on Callisto: A Jovian Unipolar Inductor " (2002) ''The Astrophysical Journal'', Volume 581, Issue 1, pp. L51-L54 the Moon,"Sonett, C. P.; Colburn, D. S., " Establishment of a Lunar Unipolar Generator and Associated Shock and Wake by the Solar Wind " (1967) ''Nature'', vol. 216, 340-343. Schwartz, K.; Sonett, C. P.; Colburn, D. S., " Unipolar Induction in the Moon and a Lunar Limb Shock Mechanism " in ''The Moon'', Vol. 1, p.7 the Solar Wind,Srnka, L. J., " Sheath-limited unipolar induction in the solar wind " (1975) ''Astrophysics and Space Science', vol. 36, Aug. 1975, p. 177-204. sunspots,Yang, Hai-Shou, " A force - free field theory of solar flares I. Unipolar sunspots " ''Chinese Astronomy and Astrophysics'', Volume 5, Issue 1, p. 77-83. Osherovich, V. A.; Garcia, H. A., " Electric current in a unipolar sunspot with an untwisted field " (1990) ''Geophysical Research Letters'' (ISSN 0094-8276), vol. 17, Nov. 1990, p. 2273-2276. and in the Venusian magnetic tail.Eroshenko, E. G., " Unipolar induction effects in the Venusian magnetic tail " (1979) Kosmicheskie Issledovaniia, vol. 17, Jan.-Feb. 1979, p. 93-10 PHYSICS Like all Dynamos , the Faraday disc converts Kinetic Energy to Electrical Energy . However, unlike all other dynamos, this machine cannot be analysed using Faraday's own law of Electromagnetic Induction . This law (in its modern form) states that an electric current is induced in a closed electrical circuit when the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit changes (in either magnitude or direction). However, the circuit in the Faraday disc is parallel to the magnetic flux vector and therefore encloses no magnetic flux. Therefore, Faraday's law does not apply to this machine. Instead, the Lorentz Force Law is used to explain the machine's behaviour. This law, discovered thirty years after Faraday's death, states that the force on an electron is proportional to the Cross Product of its Velocity and the Magnetic Flux vector. In geometrical terms, this means that the force is at right-angles to both the velocity (azimuthal) and the magnetic flux (axial), which is therefore in a radial direction. The radial movement of the electron then creates an electric current between the centre of the disc and its rim. There is a subtle difficulty in this explanation, which often leads to a misunderstanding of how the machine works. The key word in the preceding paragraph is ''velocity'', which prompts the question, "velocity relative to what?". If the velocity relative to the magnet is assumed as the cause of the Lorentz force, then the explanation contradicts Special Relativity , which states that it is impossible to tell whether a uniform magnetic field is moving or stationary. This assumption would also imply that rotating the magnet and not the disc would cause a current to flow, which is not what experimenters have found. The correct interpretation of the ''velocity'' of the electron is that it is relative to the static parts of the machine, which are the sliding contacts and the circuit to which they are connected. In the language of special relativity, these objects act as the ' Observer '. It is the velocity of the electron relative to these components that causes it to experience the Lorentz force. NOTES SEE ALSO REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING ;General references
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