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Chinese ceramics is a form of Fine Art developed since the Dynastic Periods . China have always been richly endowed with the raw materials needed for making Ceramic s. The first types were made about 11,000 years ago, during the Palaeolithic era. Chinese Ceramics range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles to hand-built Pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns to the sophisticated porcelain wares made for the imperial court. INTRODUCTION Terminology The Chinese term for are fired together. After the body of a piece is formed and finished it is dried, coated with a glaze, dried again and fired. In the high temperature of the Kiln the body and the glaze are fused together to become a unit. Chinese Enamel led wares are also produced in this way, except enamels are added after the first high-temperature firing. The pieces are then fired again in a second round via a smaller, lower-temperature kiln. Categories with transparent blue-toned glaze, from the period of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD).]] In Western tradition, ceramics are often grouped into three main categories, define porcelain 瓷 as "fine, compact pottery" 匋 Bushell, S. W. (1977) ''Chinese Pottery and Porcelain.'' Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur. ISBN 0-19-580372-8.. In the West the property of Translucence is often regarded as a defining feature of porcelain, but this is not the case in China, where any thick or Opaque piece that rings with a reasonably clear note on being struck would be regarded as porcelain 瓷 . Chinese ceramic wares are also classified as being either ''northern'' or ''southern''. Present-day China comprises two separate and geologically different land masses, brought together by the action of continental drift and forming a junction that lies between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River . The contrasting geology of the north and south led to differences in the raw materials available for making ceramics. Materials Chinese porcelain is mainly made by the following two materials or a combination of the two. Both rocks derive from the weathering and decomposition of Granitic Rock s.
Both are composed of ''platy'' minerals consisting of small platelets that ultimately allow the material to hold large amounts of Water . This is important as various methods used for forming the body parts depend on the application of Compression to align the platelets. One example is Throwing on a Wheel to increase the Plasticity and workability of the clay body. HISTORY Defining ceramics , from the Ming Dynasty era.]] In the context of Chinese ceramics the term ''porcelain'' lacks a universally accepted definition. This in turn has led to confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made. Claims have been made for the late Eastern Han period (100 to 200 AD), the Three Kingdoms period (220 to 280 AD), the Six Dynasties period (220 to 589 AD), and the Tang Dynasty (618 to 906 AD). Early wares Fragments of pottery vessels dating from around the year 9000 BC found at the Xianrendong (Spirit Cave) site, Wannian County , in the province of Jiangxi represent some of the earliest known Chinese ceramics. The wares were hand-made by Coiling and fired in Bonfire s. Decorations include impressed cord marks, and features produced by stamping and by piercing. The Xianrendong site was occupied from about 9000 BC to about 4000 BC. During this period two types of pottery were made. The first consisted of coarse-bodied wares possibly intended for everyday use. The second being finer, thinner-bodied wares possibly intended for ritual use or special occasions. There are archaeological evidence suggesting that both types of wares were produced at the same time at some point. Han dynasty Some experts believe the first true porcelain was made in the Province of Zhejiang during the Eastern Han period. Chinese experts emphasize the presence of a significant proportion of porcelain-building minerals (china clay, porcelain stone or a combination of both) as an important factor in defining ''porcelain''. Shards recovered from archaeological Eastern Han kiln sites estimated firing temperature ranged from 1260 to 1300 °C He Li, (1996). ''Chinese Ceramics. The New Standard Guide''. Thames and Hudson, London. ISBN 0-500-23727-1.. As far back as 1000 BC, the so-called ''"Porcelaneous wares"'' or ''"proto-porcelain wares"'' were made using at least some Kaolin fired at high temperatures. The dividing the line between the two and ''true porcelain wares'' is not a clear one. Sui and Tang dynasty During the Sui and Tang periods (581 to 906) a wide range of ceramics, low-fired and high-fired, were produced. These included the well-known Tang lead-glazed ''sancai'' (three-colour) wares, the high-firing, lime-glazed ''Yue'' celadon wares and low-fired wares from ''Changsha''. In northern China, high-fired, translucent porcelains were made at kilns in the provinces of Henan and Hebei . One of the first mentions of porcelain by a foreigner was made by an Arabian traveler during the Tang Dynasty who recorded that: :: The Arabs were aware of the materials necessary to create glass ware, and he was certain it was not the usual glass material. Song and Yuan dynasty porcelain bottle with iron pigment over transparent colorless glaze, 11th century.]] While the city of Jingdezhen has been an important production centre since the early Han Dynasty. In 1004 Jingde established the city as the main production hub for Imperial porcelain. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, porcelain made in the city and other Southern China kiln sites used crushed and refined porcelain stones alone. Qing dynasty By the ''. He then went on to describe the refining of china clay '' Kaolin '' along with the developmental stages of glazing and firing. He explained his motives: :: Though his first letter did not uncover any recipe secret to the . Jingdezhen became the main production centre for large-scale Porcelain Exports To Europe starting with the reign of the Wanli emperor from 1572 to 1620. By this time china clay and porcelain stone were mixed in about equal proportions. China clay produced wares of great strength when added to the body layer. Whiteness became a much sought after property, especially when combined to form blue-and-white wares. Porcelain stone was used with lower temperature of 1250 °C in the region. Compared to those mixed with china clay, which required 1350°C. The large southern egg-shaped kiln varied greatly in temperature. Near the firebox it was hot. Near the chimney, at the opposite end of the kiln, it was cooler. CHINESE PORCELAIN WARES ''sancai'' horse at the Shanghai Museum ]] Tang ''Sancai'' burial wares See Also: Sancai ''"Sancai"'' means ''three-colours''. However, the colours of the glazes used to decorate the wares of the Tang dynasty were not limited to three in number. In the West, Tang sancai wares were sometimes referred to as ''egg-and-spinach'' by dealers for the use of green, yellow and white. Though the latter of the two colours might be more properly described as ''amber'' and ''off-white'' / ''cream''. Sancai wares were northern wares made using white and buff-firing secondary kaolins and Fire Clay s Wood, Nigel (1999). ''Chinese Glazes''. A.C. Black, London. ISBN 0-7136-3837-0.. At kiln sites located at Tongchuan , Neiqui county in Hebei and Gongxian in Henan , the clays used for burial wares were similar to those used by Tang Potter s. The burial wares were fired at a lower temperature than contemporaneous whitewares. Burial wares, such as the well-known representations of camels and horses, were cast in sections, in Mould s with the parts luted together using clay slip. In some cases, a degree of individuality was imparted to the assembled figurines by hand-carving. Jian tea bowl at the Metropolitan Museum Of Art ]] Jian tea wares Jian blackwares, mainly comprising tea wares, were made at kilns located in Jianyang of Fujian province. They reached the peak of their popularity during the Song dynasty. The wares were made using locally-won, iron-rich clays and fired in an Oxidising atmosphere at temperatures in the region of 1300°C. The glaze was made using clay similar to that used for forming the body, except fluxed with wood-ash. At high temperatures the molten glaze separate to produce a pattern called ''hare's fur''. When Jian wares were set tilted for firing, drips run down the side, creating evidence of liquid glaze pooling. The ''hare's fur'' Jian tea bowl illustrated in the Metropolitan Museum Of Art in New York . It was made during the Song dynasty (960 to 1279 AD) and exhibits the typical pooling, or thickening, of the glaze near the bottom. The ''hare's fur'' patterning in the glaze of this bowl resulted from the random effect of phase separation during early cooling in the kiln and is unique to this bowl. No two bowls have identical patterning. The bowl also has a dark brown ''iron-foot'' which is typical of this style. It would have been fired, probably with several thousand other other pieces, each in its own stackable Saggar , in a single-firing in a large Dragon Kiln . One such kiln, built on the side of a steep hill, was almost 150 metres in length, though most Jian dragon kilns were fewer than 100 metres in length. An 11th century resident of Fujian wrote: :: Jian tea wares of the Song dynasty were greatly appreciated and copied in Japan , where they were known as Tenmoku wares. Phase Separation in the iron-rich glazes of Chinese blackwares was also used to produce the well-known ''oil-spot'', ''teadust'' and ''partridge-feather'' glaze effects. ''qingbai'' bowl]] Qingbai wares Qingbai wares were made at Jingdezhen and at many other southern kilns from the time of the Northern Song Dynasty until they were eclipsed in the 14th century by underglaze-decorated blue and white wares. Qingbai in Chinese literally means "clear white". The qingbai glaze is a ''porcelain glaze'', so-called because it was made using porcelain stone. The qingbai glaze is clear, but contains Iron in small amounts. When applied over a white porcelain body the glaze produces a greenish-blue colour that gives the glaze its name (''qingbai'' in Chinese means ''greenish-blue''). Some have incised or moulded decorations. The Song dynasty qingbai bowl illustrated was likely made at the Jingdezhen village of Hutian , which was also the site of the Imperial kilns established in the year 1004. The bowl has incised decoration, possibly representing clouds or the reflection of clouds in the water. The body is white, translucent and has the texture of very-fine Sugar , indicating that it was made using crushed and refined porcelain stone instead of porcelain stone and china clay. The glaze and the body of the bowl would have been fired together, in a Saggar , possibly in a large wood-burning dragon-kiln or Climbing-kiln , typical of southern kilns in the period. Though many Song and Yuan qingbai bowls were fired upside down in special segmented saggars, a technique first developed at the Ding kilns in Hebei province. The rims of such wares were left unglazed but were often bound with bands of Silver , Copper or Lead . One remarkable example of ''qingbai'' porcelain is the so-called ''Fonthill Vase'', described in a guide for Fonthill Abbey published in 1823 :: The vase was made at Jingdezhen, probably around the year 1300 and was sent as a present to Pope Benedict XII by one of the last Yuan Emperors of China, in 1338. The mounts referred to in the 1823 description were of enamelled silver-gilt and were added to the vase in Europe in 1381. An 18th century water colour of the vase complete with its mounts exists, but the mounts themselves were removed and lost in the 19th century. The vase is now in the National Museum Of Ireland . It is often held that ''qingbai'' wares were not subject to the higher standards and regulations of the other porcelain wares, since they were made for everyday use. They were mass-produced, and received little attention from scholars and Antiquarian s. The Fonthill Vase, given by a Chinese emperor to a pope, might appear to cast at least some doubt on this view. Blue and white wares period (1662 to 1722) blue and white porcelain tea caddy]] Following in the tradition of earlier ''qingbai'' porcelains, blue and white wares are glazed using a transparent ''porcelain glaze''. The blue decoration is painted onto the body of the porcelain before glazing, using very finely ground Cobalt Oxide mixed with water. After the decoration has been applied the pieces are glazed and fired. It is believed that underglaze blue and white porcelain was first made in the Tang Dynasty. Only three complete pieces of Tang blue and white porcelain are known to exist, but shards dating to the 8th or 9th century have been unearthed at Yangzhou in the Jiangsu Province . It has been suggested that the shards originated from a kiln in the province of Henan . In 1957 excavations at the site of a Pagoda in the province Zhejiang uncovered a Northern Song bowl decorated with underglaze blue and further fragments have since been discovered at the same site. In 1970 a small fragment of a blue and white bowl, again dated to the 11th century, was also excavated in the province of Zhejiang. In 1975 shards decorated with underglaze blue were excavated at a kiln site in Jiangxi and, in the same year, an underglaze blue and white Urn was excavated from a tomb dated to the year 1319, in the province of Jiangsu . It is of interest to note that a Yuan Funerary Urn decorated with underglaze blue and underglaze red and dated 1338 is still in the Chinese taste, even though by this time the large-scale production of blue and white porcelain in the Yuan , Mongol taste had started its influence at Jingdezhen. Starting early in the 14th century, blue and white porcelain rapidly became the main product of Jingdezhen, reaching the height of its technical excellence during the later years of the reign of the Kangxi Emperor de Boulay, Anthony (1973). ''Chinese Porcelain''. Octopus Books, London. ISBN 0-7064-0045-3 and continuing in present times to be an important product of the city. The Tea Caddy illustrated shows many of the characteristics of blue and white porcelain produced during the Kangxi period. The translucent body showing through the clear glaze is of great whiteness and the cobalt decoration, applied in many layers, has a fine blue Hue . The decoration, a sage in a landscape of lakes and mountains with ''blazed'' rocks is typical of the period. The porcelain body is finely textured, indicating the presence of a significant portion of china clay in the paste. The piece would have been fired in a Saggar (a lidded ceramic box intended to protect the piece from kiln debris, smoke and cinders during firing) in a Reducing Atmosphere in a wood-burning ''egg-shaped'' kiln, at a temperature approaching 1350 °C . Distinctive blue-and-white porcelain was exported to Japan where it is known as Tenkei Blue-and-white Ware or ''ko sometsukei''. This ware is thought to have been especially ordered by tea masters for Japanese Ceremony . FAKES AND REPRODUCTIONS Chinese potters have a long tradition of borrowing design and decorative features from earlier wares. Whilst ceramics with features thus borrowed might sometimes pose problems of Provenance , they would not generally be regarded as either reproductions or fakes. However, fakes and reproductions have also been made at many times during the long history of Chinese ceramics and continue to be made today in ever-increasing numbers.
-type blue-and-white vase (right), made in Northern Italy, mid-15th century. Musée Du Louvre .]]
AUTHENTICATION The most widely-known test is the Thermoluminescence test, or TL test, which is used on some types of ceramic to estimate, roughly, the date of last firing. The TL test is carried out on small samples of porcelain drilled or cut from the body of a piece, which can be risky and disfiguring. For this reason, the test is rarely used for dating finely-potted, high-fired ceramics. TL testing cannot be used at all on some types of porcelain items, particularly high-fired vitreous porcelain. SEE ALSO
GALLERY Early wares |
Image:changshaJPG Bowl, Made At
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Changsha" class="copylinks">Changsha , Ashmolean Museum , Oxford |
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Image:Ru WareJPG ''Ru'' Ware Stand For A Wine Cup, Made For The Imperial Court
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" class="copylinks">Victoria And Albert Museum , London |
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Image:B-Qingbai-KanneJPGA Porcelain Teapot In Qingbai Style, From
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Jingdezhen" class="copylinks">Jingdezhen |
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Image:Museum Für Ostasiatische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 043jpgFunerary Vase And Cover, Green-glazed
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/stoneware" class="copylinks">Stoneware Longquan, Zhejiang province, Northern Song dynasty 10th or 11th century CE Collection Yuegutang, Berlin Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst, Berlin-Dahlem |
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Image:IMG 0307 SngJPGA Longquan-ware
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/celadon" class="copylinks">Celadon vase from the Song Dynasty |
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Image:FFM-SeladonTopf02JPGA
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/celadon" class="copylinks">Celadon shoulder pot from the late Yuan Dynasty, displaying artwork of peaches, lotuses, peonies, willows, and palms |
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Image:B-Dehua-GuanyinJPG
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Guanyin" class="copylinks">Guanyin (Goddess of Mercy) with children, statuette made of Dehua porcelain ware |
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Image:He Chaozong 1JPGA
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/bodhisattva" class="copylinks">Bodhisattva Manjusri sitting atop a beast, by He Chaozong |
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Image:Qing Vase P1070256jpgQing Style At
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Stanford_Museum" class="copylinks">Stanford Museum |
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Image:IMG 0295 KaJPG
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Kangxi_transitional_porcelain" class="copylinks">Kangxi Transitional Porcelain , 1644-1680 |
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Image:IMG 0297 Ka JPG
| "http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Kangxi_transitional_porcelain" class="copylinks">Kangxi Transitional Porcelain , 1644-1680 |
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