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Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht). '''Mazdaism''' is the religion that acknowledges the divine authority of Ahura Mazda , proclaimed by Zoroaster to be the one uncreated Creator of all (God). As demonstrated by Zoroastrian creed and '' 12.2, 12.8) While Zoroastrianism was once the dominant religion of much of Greater Iran , the number of adherents has dwindled to not more than 200,000 worldwide, with concentrations in India and Iran . For details, see Adherents below. TERMINOLOGY The term "Zoroastrianism" was first attested by the '' Oxford English Dictionary '' in 1874 in Archibald Sayce's ''Principles of Comparative Philology''. The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in Western scholarship is attributed to Thomas Browne ( 1605 – 1682 ), who briefly refers to the prophet in his 1643 '' Religio Medici ''. The OED records 1743 (Warburton, ''Pope's Essay'') as the earliest reference to Zoroaster. The term "Mazdaism" ( construct, taking ''Mazda-'' from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix "ism" to suggest a belief-system. The March 2001 draft edition of the '' OED '' also records an alternate form, 'Mazdeism', perhaps derived from the French ''Mazdéisme'', which first appeared in 1871 . The Zoroastrian name of the religion is ''Mazdayasna'', which combines ''Mazda-'' with the Avestan Language word '' Yasna '' meaning 'worship, devotion'. In the English Language , an adherent of the faith commonly refers to him- or herself as a 'Zoroastrian' or, less commonly, a 'Zarathustrian'. An older, but still widespread expression is ''Behdin'', meaning "follower of ''Daena''", for which " {Link without Title} Religion" is one translation. In the Zoroastrian Liturgy , the term ''Behdin'' is also used as a title for an individual who has been formally inducted into the religion (see '' Navjote '' for details). DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS Basic beliefs # There is one universal and transcendental God, Ahura Mazda , the one uncreated Creator and to whom all worship is ultimately directed. # Ahura Mazda's creation - evident as '' Asha '', truth and order - is the Antithesis of chaos, evident as ''druj'', falsehood and disorder. The resulting conflict involves the entire universe, including humanity, which has an active role to play in the conflict (see #3 below). # Active participation in life through good thoughts, good words and good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep the chaos at bay. This ''active'' participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of Free Will , and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of Monasticism . # Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail, at which point the universe will undergo a cosmic renovation and time will end (''cf:'' Zoroastrian Eschatology ). In the final renovation, all of creation - even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to "darkness" - will be (re)united in God. # In Zoroastrian tradition, the malevolent is represented by Angra Mainyu , the "Destructive Principle", while the benevolent is represented through Ahura Mazda's Spenta Mainyu , the instrument or "Bounteous Principle" of the act of creation. It is through Spenta Mainyu that Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind, and through which the Creator interacts with the world. According to Zoroastrian cosmology, in articulating the Ahuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made His ultimate triumph evident to Angra Mainyu. # As expressions and aspects of Creation, Ahura Mazda emanated seven "sparks", the , (guardian of) " Covenant " and hence protector of the Truth.--> Other characteristics
HISTORY Although older (see Zoroaster for a date), Zoroastrianism only enters recorded history in the mid-5th century BCE. Herodotus ' '' The Histories '' (completed ''c.'' 440 BCE) includes a description of Greater Iran ian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead. (See Towers Of Silence ). Perhaps more importantly, ''The Histories'' is a primary source of information on the early period of the Achaemenid Era ( 648 – 330 BCE ), in particular with respect to the role of the Magi . According to Herodotus i.101, the "Magi" were the sixth tribe of the Medians (until the unification of the Persian empire under Cyrus The Great , all Iranians were referred to as Mede or Mada by the peoples of the Ancient World), who appear to have been the priestly caste of the Mesopotamian-influenced branch of Zoroastrianism today known as " Zurvanism ", and who wielded considerable influence at the courts of the Median emperors. Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, Cyrus II and later his son Cambyses II curtailed the powers of the "Magi" after these had attempted to seed dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE , the "Magi" revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to be Cyrus' younger son Smerdis , took power shortly thereafter. Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herodotus iii. 68). , carved into a cliffside, gives the same text in three languages, telling the story of King Darius' conquests, with the names of twenty-three provinces subject to him. It is illustrated by life-sized carved images of King Darius crushing Barbiya underfoot, and 9 defeated kings tethered by the neck also in attendance.]] According to the Behistun Inscription , pseudo-Smerdis ruled for seven months before being overthrown by Darius I in 521 BCE . The "Magi", though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (named Gaumata), had a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed. Whether Cyrus II was a Zoroastrian is subject to debate. It did however influence him to the extent that it became the non-imposing religion of his empire, and its beliefs would later allow Cyrus to free the Jews from captivity (and allow them to return to Judea ) when the emperor took Babylon in 539 BCE . Whether Darius I, though certainly a devotee of Ahura Mazda (as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription), was a follower of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established, since a devotion to Ahura Mazda was (at the time) not necessarily an indication of an adherence to Zoroaster's teaching. Darius I and later Achaemenid Emperors , though acknowledging their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, appear to have permitted religions to coexist. Nonetheless, it was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism gained momentum, and a number of the Zoroastrian texts (that today are part of the greater compendium of the Avesta ) have been attributed to that period. It was also during the (later) Achaemenid era that many of the divinities and divine concepts of proto-Indo-Iranian religion(s) were incorporated in Zoroastrianism, in particular, those to whom the days of the month of the Zoroastrian Calendar are dedicated. That religious calendar, which is still in use today, is itself (to some extent) an Achaemenid-era development. Those divinities, the '' Yazata ''s, are present-day Zoroastrianism's Angel s. (Dhalla, 1938). Almost nothing is known of the status of Zoroastrianism under the Seleucids and Parthians who ruled over Persia following Alexander The Great's invasion in 330 BCE . According to later Zoroastrian legend ('' Denkard '', '' Book Of Arda Viraf ''), many of the Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost when Alexander's troops destroyed the royal library at Persepolis subsequent to the taking of the city. Diodorus Siculus's ''Bibliotheca historia'' (completed ''c.'' 60 BCE ), which is to a great extent an encapsulation of earlier works, appears to substantiate Zoroastrian legend (Diod. 17.72.2–17.72.6). According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace of Xerxes bear traces of having been subjected to fire (Stolze, 1882). Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious texts "written on parchment in gold ink" as suggested by the ''Denkard'' actually existed remains a matter of speculation, but is in all likelihood untrue. Given that many of the ''Denkard''s statements-as-fact have since been established as untrue, among scholars, the tale of the library is widely accepted to be a fiction. (Kellens, 2002) When the Sassanid Dynasty came into power in 228 CE , they aggressively promoted the Zurvanite form of Zoroastrianism and in some cases persecuted Christians and Manichaeans . When the Sassanids captured territory, they often built fire temples there to promote their religion. The Sassanids were suspicious of Christians not least because of their perceived ties to the Christian Roman Empire . Thus, those Christians loyal to the Patriarchate Of Babylon — which had broken with Roman Christianity when the latter condemned Nestorianism — were tolerated and even sometimes favored by the Sassanids. Nestorians lived in large numbers in Mesopotamia and Khuzestan during this period. A form of Zoroastrianism was apparently also the chief religion of pre-Christian Caucasus region, or at least was prominent there. During periods of Sassanid suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote the religion there as well. Well before the 6th century, Zoroastrianism had spread to northern China via the Silk Road , gaining official status in a number of Chinese states. Remains of Zoroastrian temples have been found in Kaifeng and Zhenjiang , and according to some scholars, remained as late as the 1130s, but by the 13th century the religion had faded from prominence in China. However, many scholars assert the influence of Zoroastrianism (as well as later Manicheism ) on elements of Buddhism, especially in terms of light symbolism. In the 7th century, the Sassanid dynasty was overthrown by the Arabs . Although some of the later rulers had Zoroastrian shrines destroyed, generally Zoroastrians were included as People Of The Book and allowed to practice their religion. Mass conversions to Islam were not imposed,. in accordance with Islamic law. However, there was a slow but steady social pressure to convert.. The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, with Islam more slowly being accepted among the peasantry and landed gentry.. Later, the ''jiyza'', a poll tax imposed on non-Muslims, probably accelerated the process. Many Zoroastrians fled, among them several groups who eventually migrated to the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. According to the (near Merv , in present-day Turkmenistan ) and the eponymous Sari (in modern Mazandaran , Iran ). (Kotwal, 2004) In the centuries following the fall of the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism began to gradually return to the form it had had under the Achaemenids, and no evidence of what is today called the "Zurvan Heresy" exists beyond the 10th century CE. (Boyce, 2002) Ironically, it was Zurvanism and Zurvan-influenced texts that first reached the west, leading to the supposition that Zoroastrianism was a religion with two deities: Zurvan and Ahura Mazda (the latter being opposed by Angra Mainyu ). Today, the number of Zoroastrians is significantly lower than it once was, but the religion is alive. Over the centuries, adherents of the faith have dispersed in all directions, but greater concentrations of Zoroastrians may still be found on the Indian Subcontinent and in Iran. RELATION TO OTHER RELIGIONS AND CULTURES Zoroastrianism is uniquely important in the history of religion because of its possible formative links to both Western and Eastern religious traditions. As "the oldest of the revealed credal religions," Zoroastrianism "probably had more influence on mankind directly or indirectly than any other faith.". It has been asserted .. that key concepts of Zoroastrian Eschatology and Demonology are evident in the Abrahamic Religion s. However, Boycee.g. . and other Iranist also tell us that Zoroastrianism itself inherited ideas from other belief systems. As such, Zoroastrianism, like other ''practiced'' religions, was not immune to Syncretism . In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of Yasna 30.3 that provided an escape from (what was considered to be) the dualism implicit in the Gathas. This interpretation was a rediscovery of the precepts of Zurvanism, with the difference that Angra Mainyu was now not Ahura Mazda's equal, but an emanation of Him. This interpetion was accepted by the Parsi s of Bombay ho were under pressure from Christian missionaries looking for converts. It is not, however, substantiated by Zoroastrian Tradition , (see Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu for additional details). Many traits of Zoroastrianism can be traced back to the culture and beliefs of the proto-Indo-Iranian period, and Zoroastrianism consequently shares some elements with the Historical Vedic Religion that also has its origins in that era. However, Zoroastrianism was also strongly affected by the later culture of the Iranian Heroic Age (1500 BCE onwards), an influence that the Indic religions were not subject to. Nonetheless, scholars have used evidence from the texts of both religious systems to reconstruct the earlier stage of Proto-Indo-Iranian beliefs and culture. This has also formed attempts to characterise the even earlier Proto-Indo-European Religion and so, for example, determine the process by which Dyeus became Jupiter , Sabazios , Zeus , and Tyr . Many aspects of Zoroastrianism are in turn present in the culture and mythologies of the peoples of the Greater Iran , not least because Zoroastrianism, for a thousand years, was a dominant influence on the people of the cultural continent. Even after the rise of Islam and the loss of direct influence, Zoroastrianism remained part of the cultural heritage of the Iranian Language -speaking world, in part as festivals and customs but also because Ferdowsi incorporated a number of the figures and stories from the Avesta in his epic '' Shāhnāme '', which in turn is pivotal to Iranian identity. RELIGIOUS TEXTS Scripture See Also: Avesta The Avesta is the collection of the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. Although the texts are very old, the compendium as we know it today is essentially the result of a Redaction that is thought to have occurred during the reign of Shapur II ( 309 – 379 CE ). However, some portions of the collection have been lost since then, especially after the fall of the Sassanid Empire in 651 CE , after which Zoroastrianism was supplanted by Islam . The oldest existing copy of an Avestan Language text dates to 1288 CE . The most ancient of the texts of the Avesta are in an old or ''Gathic'' Avestan. The majority of the texts are however from a later period: most are probably from the Achaemenid Era ( 648 – 330 BCE ), with a few being even younger. All the texts are believed to have been transmitted orally for centuries before they found written form, and in existing copies, the Avestan language words are written in '' Din Dabireh '' script, a Sassanid Era ( 226 – 651 CE ) invention. '' (Bodleian MS J2)]] The various texts of the Avesta are generally divided into topical categories, but these are by no means fixed or canonical. Some scholars prefer to place the five categories in two groups, one liturgical and the other general.
Other texts The texts of the Avesta are complemented by several secondary works of religious or semi-religious nature, which although not sacred and not used as scripture, have a significant influence on Zoroastrian doctrine. They are all of a much later date - in general from between the 9th and 12th centuries - with the youngest treatises dating to the 17th century. Some of these works quote passages that are believed to be from lost sections of the Avesta. The most important of these secondary texts (of which there some 60 in all) are:
The use of the expression ''Zend-Avesta'' to refer to the Avesta, or the use of ''Zend'' as the name of a language or script, are relatively recent and popular mistakes. The word ''Zend'' or ''Zand'', meaning "commentary, translation", refers to supplementaries in Middle Persian not intended for use as theological texts by themselves but for religious instruction of the (by then) non-Avestan-speaking public. In contrast, the texts of the Avesta proper remained sacrosanct and continued to be recited in Avestan - which was considered a Sacred Language . In a general sense, all the secondary texts mentioned above are also included in the ''Zend'' rubric since they too often include commentaries on the Avesta and on the religion. PRINCIPAL BELIEFS |
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