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The complex relationship between women and Islam is defined by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the . ISBN 0-19-950469-5, p.93 However, '' Sharia '' (Islamic law) provides for marked differences between Women's And Men's Roles , rights, and obligations, and many Muslim-majority Countries give women different rights than men with regard to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education. Even where these differences are acknowledged, scholars and other commentators vary as to whether they are unjust and whether they are a correct interpretation of religious imperatives. Conservatives argue that differences between men and women are due to different status and responsibilities,, Muslim Feminists , and others argue that more progressive interpretations of the role of women are more just. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia See Also: Women in Arab societies#Arab women before Islam In Pre-Islamic Arabia , women's status varied widely according to laws and cultural norms of the Tribe s in which they lived. There were instances where women held high positions of power and authority; there were also patterns of homicidal abuse of women and girls, including Female Infanticide . It is claimed by some Muslim writers and some scholars of Middle Eastern History that in pre-Islamic Arabia , women could not inherit land or wealth; holdings were usually considered the property of the tribe she was born or married in to. This lack of rights was not particular to Arabia; see Legal Rights Of Women In History . Muslim reform of women's status Islam changed the structure of Arab society and to a large degree unified the people, reforming and standardizing gender roles throughout the region. The Islamic Scholar William Montgomery Watt states: : of the early sources ... seem[ to show that Muhammad made things better for women. It appears that in some parts of Arabia, notably in Mecca , a Matrilineal system was in the process of being replaced by a Patrilineal one at the time of Muhammad. Growing prosperity caused by a shifting of Trade Route s was accompanied by a growth in Individualism . Men were amassing considerable personal wealth and wanted to be sure that this would be inherited by their own actual sons, and not simply by an extended family of their sisters’ sons. This led to a deterioration in the rights of women. At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible - they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons. Muhammad improved things quite a lot. By instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, he gave women certain basic safeguards. Set in such historical context the Prophet can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women’s rights. Maan, Bashir and Alastair McIntosh. "'The whole house of Islam, and we Christians with them...': An interview with 'the Last Orientalist' - the Rev Prof William Montgomery Watt." Internet version from www.alastairmcintosh.com. Also published in The Coracle, the Iona Community, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11. Islam, both in the form of Quranic teachings and '' Sharia '' (law), has had a formative influence on the role of women and men in Muslim societies throughout the centuries. John Esposito writes with regard to women in Islam: The study of women in Islam and Muslim society is complex, reflecting the diverse and varied realities of Muslim women and Muslim societies throughout the ages. Alongside ideals embodied in the Qur'an and the traditions (''hadith'') of Muhammad, one must look at the actual condition of Muslim women in diverse time periods and sociohistorical contexts. The status of women in Islam was profoundly affected not only by the fact that Islamic belief interacted with and was informed by diverse cultures, but also, and of equal importance, that the primary interpreters of Islamic law and tradition were men (religious scholars or '' Ulama '') from those cultures. Islamic law is the product of Quranic guidelines, as understood by Islamic jurisprudence ('' Fiqh ''), as well as of the interpretations derived from the traditions of Muhammad ('' Hadith ''), which were also selected by a number of historical Islamic scholars. Such rules were historically often eroded and subverted, claims Esposito, by social custom, poverty, and illiteracy. Furthermore, whether or not Muslims tended to follow these rules was dependent on the prevailing culture, which differed between social classes, local conditions, and regions. Quranic reforms, which in many regions improved the position of women relative to their situation prior to Islam, have often been undermined by the reassertion of tribal customs, or the use of such customs under the name of Islamic law. The spirit of the Quranic reforms may also have been modified by historical or cultural interpretations, reaffirming male dominance and perpetuating Gender Inequality . GENDER ROLES See Also: Gender roles in Islam In Islam, relations between the sexes are governed not by the principle of equality but by that of complementarity.Carla Makhlouf Obermeyer. "Islam, Women, and Politics: The demography of Arab countries", ''Population and Development Review'', Vol. 18, No. 1. (Mar., 1992), pp. 33-60 In many Islamic societies, there is a division of roles creating a woman’s space in the Private Sphere of the home and a man’s in the Public Sphere .Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., ''Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power'', New York, Columbia University Press Because of this economic reliance of woman on men, the Qur'an justifies that men should always be in charge over woman."Men are the ones that should be in charge of women because some have been favoured more than others" Abu Bakr Ibn `Ali al-Jassas, Ahkam al-Qur'an (Cairo, 1347 A.H.), 3:471ff. al-Sabuni, 2:433.See also : "And it is for the women to act as they (the husbands) act by them, in all fairness; but the men are a step above them."See also : "Men are in charge of women, because Allah hath made the one of them to excel the other, and because they spend of their property (for the support of women). So good women are the obedient, guarding in secret that which Allah hath guarded ..." A woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as fulfilling her role as a wife and mother,Ahmed, L., 1992, ''Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate'', New Haven, Yale University Press. whereas a man’s role is to work and be able to financially support his wife and family.Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., ''Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power'', New York, Columbia University Press The Quran also directs men to honor their mothers"Revere God and the wombs (that bore you)." Qur'an, and strongly disapproves of parents who feel ashamed over the birth of a daughter instead of a son."When news is brought to one of them, of (the birth of) a female (child), his face darkens, and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people, because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain it on (sufferance and) contempt, or bury it in the dust? Ah! what an evil (choice) they decide on?" Qur'an, SEX SEGREGATION See Also: Sex segregation and Islam See Also: Purdah Islam discourages social interaction between men and women when they are alone, but not all interaction between men and women. This is shown in the example of Khadijah , a rich, twice widowed businesswoman who employed Muhammad and met with him to conduct trade before they were married, and in the example set by His Other Wives , who taught and counseled the men and women of Medina . In some Islamic countries, such as Saudi Arabia , Sex Segregation has been or is strictly enforced. The Taliban Treatment Of Women in Afghanistan was an extreme example of this. Even in countries where the sexes mingle socially, they generally remain segregated within the Mosque because of the close body contact required and to avoid distraction during the Islamic form of prayer. FINANCIAL RIGHTS Islam gives women the right to own, which entitles them to have personal possessions. It also guarantees them to right to inherit a proportion of their father's estate. A woman, when compared with her husband, is far less burdened with any claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she is encouraged to keep her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. Unless she is a slave she is entitled to the '' Mahr '' (dowry) which her husband gives her at the time of marriage. Jamal Badawi , '' The status of women in Islam ''See also Qur'an : "Wed them with permission of their folk, and give them ''Mahr'' according what is reasonable ..." Women, unlike men, also have the right to be supported financially.See also Qur'an : "Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means..." A widowed woman inherits her husband's estate. Some of women's financial rights are limited compared to those of men. Women's share of inheritance, as outlined in the Qur'an, is typically less than that of men. Women's right to work is also disputed. Inheritance See Also: Islamic inheritance jurisprudence#Women and inheritance In Islam, women are entitled the right of Inheritance ,"''From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large,-a determinate share.''" Sura 4 :7 {Link without Title} but often a woman's share of inheritance is less than that of a man's. In general circumstances, Islam allots females half the inheritance share available to males who have the same degree of relation to the deceased.See also : "For example, where the deceased has both male and female children, a son's share is double that of a daughter's."See also : "Additionally, the sister of a childless man inherits half of his property upon his death, while a brother of a childless woman inherits all of her property." Some argue that this difference derives from men's obligation to support their wives financially, while the women's share would be entirely at her own disposal. In most Muslim nations, the law of the state concerning inheritance is in accordance with this law. Employment Women are allowed to work in Islam, subject to certain conditions, and even recommended to do so should they be in financial need.Al Qaradawy, Yusuf. '' The Status Of Women In Islam ''. Chapter: The Woman as Member of the Society: When is a woman allowed to work? This is supported by the Quranic example of two female shepherds (). Islam recognizes that the society needs women to work for the sake of development. In general, women's right to work is subject to certain conditions:
Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the Muslim community to organize work for women, so that can do so in a Muslim atmosphere, where her rights are respected. However, the employment of women varies over fields in Islamic law. Whereas women may seek medical treat from men it is preferred that they do so from female physicians. It is also preferred that female schools, colleges, sports centers and ministries be staffed by women rather than men. On the contrary, there are disagreements between Islamic Schools Of Thought about whether women should be able to hold the position of judge in a court. Shafi`i tes claim that women may hold no judicial office, while Hanafi tes allow women to act as judges in Civil Cases only, not criminal ones. These interpretations are based on the above quoted Medinan '' Sura '' (verse) .Haddad/Esposito pg.41 Even when women have the right to work and are educated, women's job opportunities may in practice be unequal to those of men, like they are in any modern society. In the female population in employment has reached 23%, while in Indonesia the rate is 51% {Link without Title} . LEGAL MATTERS Rights to give testimony In cases of ''s believe that if two or more women testify alongside a male witness, then (as in cases regarding financial transactions, discussed below), their testimony is acceptable.. the Zahiris opinion is based on the Quran verse which states that "a woman is equal to half of a man". See also : "Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one man?" They replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her intelligence."See also : "Isn't the witness of a women equal to half that of a man?" The women said "yes". He said "This is because of the deficiency of the women's mind."See also : "O womenfolk, you should ask for forgiveness for I saw you in bulk amongst the dwellers of Hell. A wise lady said: Why is it, Allah’s Apostle, that women comprise the bulk of the inhabitants of Hell? The Prophet observed: ‘You curse too much and are ungrateful to your spouses. You lack common sense, fail in religion and rob the wisdom of the wise.’ Upon this the woman remarked: What is wrong with our common sense? The Prophet replied, ‘Your lack of common sense can be determined from the fact that the evidence of two women is equal to one man. That is a proof." In case of witnesses for financial documents, the Qur'an asks for two men or one man and two women.See also : "... and call in to witness from among your men two witnesses; but if there are not two men, then one man and two women from among those whom you choose to be witnesses, so that if one of the two errs, the second of the two may remind the other...".According to Averroes, a 12th-century , 14(7), July 2004 In matters other than financial transactions, scholars differ on whether the Qur'anic verses relating to financial transactions apply.Ordinary Muslims also challenge the extent of the application of the verse; see, e.g., http://www.submission.org/women/faq8.html. This is especially true in the case of bodily affairs like like divorce, marriage, Slave-emancipation and ''raju‘'' (restitution of conjugal rights). According to Averroes, Imam Abu Hanifa believed that their testimony is acceptable in such cases. Imam Malik , on the contrary, believes that their testimony remains unacceptable. For bodily affairs about which men can have no information in ordinary circumstances, such as the physical handicaps of women and the crying of a baby at birth, the majority of scholars hold that the testimony of women alone is acceptable. In certain situations, the scripture accepts the testimony of a woman as equal to that of a man's and that her testimony can even invalidate his, such as when a man accuses his wife of unchastity.http://www.twf.org/Library/WomenICJ.html#witness Diyya See Also: Diyya ''Diyya'' is a fine paid by a killer to the victim's next of kin after either intentional or unintentional homicide. Islam does not prescribe any specific amount for ''diyat'' nor does it require discrimination in this matter between men and women; the Qur'an has left open its quantity, nature, and other related affairs to be defined by social custom and tradition. The law of ''diyya'' was in force in Arabia Before The Advent Of Islam . Countries such as Saudi Arabia still use the same historical laws, which provide that the fine for unintentional murder of a woman is half of that of a man. Punishments Islamic Criminal Jurisprudence does not discriminate between genders in punishments for crimes. In case of Sexual Crimes such as '' Zina '' (fornication), however, it is hard to prove that a women committed ''zina'' because the accuser needs four witnesses. Asifa Quraishi. " Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective ," in ''Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America'', Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). The author also argues that this traditional view may be inconsistent with the requirements outlined in the Qur'an. Pregnancy would be another sign that the woman had committed ''zina''. The difficulty of prosecuting rapists and the possibility of prosecution for women who allege rape has been of special interest to activists for Muslim '' (disorder in the land),See, e.g., http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=1369 and Asifa Quraishi. " Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective ," in ''Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America'', Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). Mentioned in verses , which does not require four witnesses. The form of punishment and interpretation of Islamic law in this case is highly dependent on the legislation of the nation in question, and/or of the judge. So-called -, Turkish -, and Urdu -speaking parts of the Muslim world, being most common within Muslim communities around the Mediterranean . Furthermore, most cases involving the practice in non-Muslim areas involve people from Muslim-majority countries.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3828675.stmhttp://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1244406,00.html The Quran condemns http://www.quran.org.uk/out.php?LinkID=93See also : "When the girl-child that was buried alive is asked for what sin she was slain ...". MARRIAGE AND SEXUALITY See Also: Islamic marital jurisprudence Islamic sexual jurisprudence The 1873. The Quran mandates that the will of the woman be honoured in marriage, and forbids Widow Inheritance without the permission of the woman concerned. "O you who believe! You are forbidden to inherit women against their will." Age No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage. Children Of The Youngest Age May Be Married or promised for marriage, although a girl is not handed across to her husband until she is fit for marital sexual relations.Levy, p.106 Some have argued that Muhammed himself married Aisha when she was six years oldSahih Bukhari 5:58:234 and Sahih Muslim 8:3311 and commenced sexual relations with her when she was nine D. A. Spellberg; Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40 although this has been refused by many muslims stating they were not married until she was eighteen.Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad, 1992 U.S.A. edition, p. 30, note 40 Restrictions on marriage Islamic jurists have traditionally held that Muslim women may only enter into marriage with Muslim men. Khaled Abou El Fadl . "On Christian Men marrying Muslim Women." Some say the principle exists because Muslims may not place themselves in a position inferior to that of the followers of other religions.Friedmann (2003), p. 162 Marriage contract See Also: Islamic marriage contract The contract specifies the Dowry ('' Mahr '') the groom gives to the bride upon their marriage. It may also specify where the couple will live, whether or not the first wife will allow the husband To Take A Second Wife without her consent, whether or not the wife has the right to initiate divorce, and other such matters. The marriage contract somewhat resembles the marriage settlements once negotiated for upper-class Western brides, but can extend to non-financial matters usually ignored by marriage settlements or Pre-nuptial Agreement s. In practice, most Islamic marriages are entered into without a written contract, or with a "fill in the blanks" form supplied by the officiant. In such cases, Islamic law, influenced by custom and/or rulings by local courts based on local law, governs the treatment of a divorcee or widow, and is often, in the opinion of Islamic Feminists , unfair or unkind. Islamic feminists have been active in informing Muslim women of their rights under Islamic Law (''sharia'') and encouraging them to negotiate favorable contracts before marriage. Rights and obligations as wife See Also: Rights and obligations of spouses in Islam Islam advocates a harmonious relationship between husband and wife. It puts the main responsibility of earning over the husband. Both are asked to fulfill the other's sexual needs.And now, people, you acquire certain rights over your wives, and they do you. The right you acquire over them is that they should not let someone you hate sleep in your beds, and not to commit a manifest obscenity (or adultery). If they do (commit it), then God has given you permission to leave them alone in their beds and give them a beating, though not too hard. If they give over, they get their provision and clothing with kindness; I command you good-will for your wives, for they are your captives(1) that do not own anything of their own. You have taken them by the faithfulness of God, and made their sexual organs lawful for you by the words of God. Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya (Cairo, 1963), 4:251. Husbands are asked to be kind to their wives and wives are asked to be obedient to their husbands.Mohammad said: "The woman is a toy, whoever takes her let him care for her (or do not lose her)" Tuffaha, Ahmad Zaky, Al-Mar'ah wal- Islam, Dar al-Kitab al-Lubnani, Beirut, first edition, 1985, p. 180 Qur'an also emphasizes the importance of taking counsel and mutual agreement in family decisions.See also : "If they (husband and wife) desire to wean the child by mutual consent and after consultation, there is no blame on them." "Rebellious wives" and domestic violence See Also: Domestic violence and Islam In case of "rebellious" behaviour, Verse 34 Of An-Nisa says the husband should urge his wife to mend her ways, refuse to share her bed, and admonish her by beating. Ibn Kathir , “Tafsir of Ibn Kathir”, Al-Firdous Ltd., London, 2000, 50-53 There is conflict between Islamic Scholars about the proper interpretation of this and related texts. Some scholars urge that ''idribûhunna'', normally translated as "beat", should instead be translated as "separate". There is also conflict about the proper Severity Of Beatings , and whether the aforementioned remedies for rebellion must be taken in sequence. Some scholars say that beating should be used only as a last resort, and that not beating is preferable to beating. While many of the scholars allowing "beating" stress that it is a last resort, discountenanced, and must be done so as not to cause injury, many Muslims believe that domestic violence is acceptable, and domestic violence is often considered to be a problem particularly associated with Muslim communities.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/07/AR2007050701936.html?hpid=topnews Polygamy See Also: Polygyny in Islam . The pertinent Qur'an verse is "And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marry mothers that are lawful to you, two two, three three, four four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly them , then only one, or those which your right hands possess. That will be more suitable to prevent you from doing injustice. And give these women their dowers also the way dowers are given; but if they, of their own good pleasure, remit any part of it to you, take it and consume it gladly." Qur'an , . Sexuality See Also: Islamic sexual jurisprudence According to Doumato, in Islamic thought, women are held responsible for sexual temptation. She writes: "Specific Quranic verses enjoin modesty upon women and, to a lesser degree, upon men; and women are viewed as being responsible for sexual temptation ('' Fitna '')."Eleanor Abdella Doumato, in Helen Chapin Metz (ed.), Saudi Arabia: a country study (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1993), Ch. 2. (This source might also be found at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sa0038) ) More positively, some hold that Islam enjoins sexual pleasure within marriage; see Asra Nomani 's polemic " Islamic Bill Of Rights For Women In The Bedroom ". A high value is placed on Chastity (not to be confused with Celibacy ) for both men and women. To protect women from accusations of unchaste behaviour, the scripture lays down severe punishments towards those who make false allegations about a woman's chastity "And those who launch a charge against chaste women, and produce not four witnesses (to support their allegations), - flog them with eighty stripes; and reject their evidence ever after: for such men are wicked transgressors."Qur'an, Divorce See Also: Talaq (Nikah) The rules for '' Talaq '' ( Divorce ) vary among the Major Islamic Schools . For both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, the right to demand a divorce is primarily for men. Unless otherwise specified in the Marriage Contract , women can only seek divorce through court proceedings by convincing a '' Qadi '' to grant a divorce. Shi'as and Sunnis believe that a wife can ask for a ''hula'' (also Transliterated ''khulah'') divorce. Usually, assuming her husband demands a divorce, the divorced wife keeps her ''mahr''( Dowry ), both the original gift and any supplementary property specified in the marriage contract. She is also given Child Support until the age of weaning, at which point the child's custody will be settled by the couple or by the courts. Women’s right to divorce is often extremely limited compared with that of men in the , women usually can ask for divorce only when the husband’s inability to support her life is admitted, while men can divorce at will. In practice in most of the Muslim World today divorce can be quite involved as there may be separate secular procedures to follow as well. This contentious area of religious practice and tradition is being increasingly challenged by those promoting more Liberal Interpretations Of Islam . MOVEMENT AND TRAVEL Islam requires a woman to inform her husband when leaving home. However, for small movements (such as leaving home to study) only require a general consent by her husband, though the husband's permission is necessary. Similarly, a husband must inform his wife of his whereabouts.'' Women Traveling without Mahram ''. European Council for Fatwa and Research. There is debate regarding whether women may travel without a ''mahram'' (unmarriageable relative). Some scholars opine that a woman may not travel by herself on a journey that takes longer than three days (equivalent to 48 miles in medieval Islam).http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=1&ID=1993&CATE=143 The reson for this prohibition was the fear of a woman's safety. Scholars relax this prohibition on modern methods of transportation (such as trains and planes), which they view as convenient and secure enough for women to travel alone. ruled Afghanistan , they issued a 2001 decree that also banned women from driving. The Situation of Women in Afghanistan - United Nations Report DRESS CODE See Also: Hijab ]] ''Hijab'' is usually taken to mean modest dress (see Sartorial Hijab ) but also refers to demeanor in general. The Qur'an requires believers, both male and female, to dress and behave modestly. :"And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their headcovers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands fathers, their sons." ( 24 :31). Traditionally, this ''; critics of strict dress codes are applying this to clothing as well. Traditionally Muslims, . Some contemporary Muslims believe that the commandment to modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest, or daring, in one society may not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve in the situations in which they find themselves. Women in Islam: Hijab , Ibrahim B. Syed, 2001 John Esposito argues that the Qur'an does not stipulate veiling or seclusion (see also Purdah ); on the contrary, it tends to emphasize the participation of religious responsibility of both men and women in society. John Esposito , ''Islam: The Straight Path,'', p.98, 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press, 2005. WOMEN IN RELIGIOUS LIFE Spirituality In Islam, there is no difference between men and women as far as their relationship to God is concerned, as both are promised the same reward for good conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. The Quran offers the same rewards for men and women "For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in God's praise, for them has God prepared forgiveness and great reward." and "Their Lord responds to them: "I will not let the deeds of any doer among you go to waste, male or female - you are both the same in that respect ..." , including the chance of entering Paradise "Enter into Paradise, you and your wives, with delight." . The Scripture also states that: "Who so does that which is right, and believes, whether male or female, him or her will We quicken to happy life." . Women in prayer At the time of Muhammad, the women prayed at the rear of the building while the men were at the front; however, they would have been within earshot of the '''' (religious school). While in menstruation, women are considered unclean and therefore advised by Islamic scholars from praying.See also : "Isn't it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her menses?" The women replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her religion."`Â’ishah relates that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “I do not permit a woman in her menses or a person in a state of major ritual impurity into the mosque.” Abî Dâwûd, Sunan Ibn Mâjah, Sunan al-Bayhaqî, and Sahîh Ibn Khuzaymah Women as religious leaders and scholars See Also: Women as imams In many modern interpretations of Islam, it is acceptable for women to be scholarshttp://www.themodernreligion.com/women/recognition.html because women, as well as men, are encouraged to become as educated as they can. In most Muslim Societies , however, the education of women lags behind that of men which is, generally speaking, low to begin with. Throughout the history of Islam, there were 2,500 female jurists, narrators of ''hadith'', and poets. Today, while female activists and writers are relatively common, there has not been a significant female jurist in over 200 years. The right to hold an official position in a mosque, however, is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an ''imam'' (religious leader) in a mosque is to lead the '' Sunan Abu Dawud , Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal , (Bayrut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al- ‘Arabi, n.d.) vol.5, 3:1375 WOMEN AND POLITICS Women as political leaders , former Prime Minister of Pakistan .]] See Also: Female political leaders in Islam and in Muslim-majority countries The only hadith relating to female leadership is , in which Muhammad is recorded as saying that people with a female ruler will never be successful.Anne Sofie Roald. ''Women in Islam: The Western Experience'', p186-7. The al-Bukhari collection is generally regarded as authentic, though one Muslim feminist has questioned the reliability of the recorder of this particular hadith. Additionally, some classical Islamic scholars, such as Al-Tabari , supported female leadership. In early Islamic history, women, most notably queen Shajarat Ad-Durr ruled for a few years in Egypt .http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/shajarat.htm There are many contemporary examples of women leading countries in which Muslims are a majority or a large minority. Remarkably, a majority of all Muslims in the world live in countries that have, at some time, elected women as their leaders. These countries include , and Turkey http://womenshistory.about.com/od/cillertansu/Tansu_iller.htm. Right to vote According to some scholars voting is permissible for women in Islam, as it has never been openly banned, neither in Quran nor by Sunnah. Islam Online.net Until recently most Muslim nations were non-democratic, but most today allow their citizens to have Some Level Of Voting and control over their government. Aside from Saudi Arabia , all such nations allow women to vote. ( Lebanon requires proof of education for women to vote.) The History Of Women’s Suffrage In Muslim Societies is quite varied and is indicative of the varied traditions and values that are present within the Muslim World . Azerbaijan has had Women's Suffrage since 1918, but many Arab states did not have women's suffrage until the last ten years. It is to be noted that even where women's suffrage as a right is technically present, women may not as a practical matter be able to vote. When compared with First World Western countries, Muslim countries on the whole have lagged in granting women suffrage.See Timeline Of Women's Suffrage , Majority Muslim Countries , and Timeline Of First Women's Suffrage In Majority-Muslim Countries Because the majority of Muslim countries are Developing Nations , it might be more appropriate to compare suffrage rights with those of other developing nations. See also Timeline Of Women's Suffrage . WOMEN AS SLAVES AND PRISONERS OF WAR See Also: Islam and Slavery Ma malakat aymanukum and sex The '', a Circumlocution meaning "that which your right hand possesses". Slavery is today widely viewed to be opposed to Islamic principles of justice and equality Encyclopedia Of The Qur'an , ''Slaves and Slavery'' and has been outlawed in almost all of the Muslim World .Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam However, slavery claiming the sanction of Islam still exists in Chad , Mauritania and Sudan .2 pp. 206 and 222.http://www.africaspeaks.com/articles/070699.html Several aspects of the master-slave relationship are of particular interest in the case where a slave is female. The '' 4:24 MODERN DEBATE ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN ISLAM Using the Qur'an , the '' Hadith '' (the sayings of Mohammed ) and the lives of prominent women in the early period of Muslim History as sources, conservatives have argued that existing gender asymmetries are divinely ordained, while Feminists have emphasized the more egalitarian ideals of early Islam. For both Islamic Feminists and anti-feminists, Islamic doctrine has continued to be the basis for discourse regarding Women's Rights . Whether perceived injustice is according to Islamic religious doctrine or culture is disputed. Conservatives Conservatives reject the assertion that different laws prescribed for men and women imply that men are more valuable than women, arguing that the only criterion of value before God is Piety .Part of the verse () that literally reads as “the male is not like the female” is usually used to show that the value of the female is greater than or at least equal to the value of the male. (The text is not clear as to whether this quote is supposed to be from God or from the mother of Mary , but the meaning of the phrase is clear in its context.) Some Islamic scholars justify the different religious laws for men and women by referring to the biological and sociological differences between men and women. For example, regarding the inheritance law which states that women’s share of inheritance is half that of men, the ''imam'' Ali ibn Musa Al-reza reasoned that at the time of marriage a man has to pay something to his prospective bride, and that men are responsible for both their wives' and their own expenses but women have no such responsibility. Quoted in Grand Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir Nemoneh, on verse 4:12. Islamism The nebulous revivalist movement termed Islamism is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. The experience of women in Islamist states has been strikingly varied. Iran has been, Since Its Revolution In 1979 , a Theocracy . The Position Of Women In Iran Today is complex. Iranian Islamists are ideologically committed to inequality for women in inheritance and other areas of The Civil Code and to Segregation Of The Sexes . However, women legislators are included in the Majlis Of Iran (parliament),See, e.g., Tahereh Saffarzadeh , Masumeh Ebtekar , Marzieh Dabbaq and Zahra Rahnavard . and women comprise 60% of university students.http://www.parstimes.com/women/women_universities.html , which led to illnesses remaining untreated. They faced public flogging A woman being flogged in public . and execution for violations of the Taliban's laws. , Physicians for Human Rights, August 1998."100 Girls' Schools in Afghan Capital Are Ordered Shut", ''The New York Times'', June 17, 1998. Liberals See Also: Liberal movements within Islam Islam contains conservative and liberal strands, as do other religions. '' Ijtihad '', a form of Critical Thinking , is one way Muslims are creating a more progressive form of Islam, which includes a consideration of the status of women.See, e.g., http://www.asmasociety.org/wise/article_ijtihad.pdf interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran , '' Hadith '' and '' Sharia '' towards the creation of a more equal and just society.http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm Criticism |
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