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The Third Servile War, also called the '''Gladiator War''' and '''The War of Spartacus''' by Plutarch , was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave rebellions against the Roman Republic , known collectively as the Servile Wars . The Third Servile War was the only one to directly threaten the Roman heartland of Italia and was doubly alarming to the Roman people due to the repeated successes of the rapidly growing band of rebel slaves against the Roman army between 73 and 71 BC . The rebellion was finally crushed through the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus , although the rebellion continued to have indirect effects on Roman politics for years to come. Between 73 and 71 BC, a band of escaped slaves — originally a small Cadre of about 70 escaped Gladiator s which grew into a band of over 120,000 men, women and children — wandered throughout and raided Italy with relative impunity under the guidance of several leaders, including the famous gladiator-general Spartacus . The able-bodied adults of this band were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand the Roman military, from the local Campania n patrols, to the Roman Militia , and to trained Roman Legion s under Consul ar command. Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt by Roman slaves to escape their masters and flee through Cisalpine Gaul , while Appian and Florus depicted the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to capture the city of Rome itself. The Roman Senate 's growing alarm about the continued military successes of this band, and about their depredations against Roman towns and the countryside, eventually led to Rome's fielding of an army of eight legions under the harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus . The war ended in 71 BC when the armies of Spartacus, after long and bitter fighting, retreating before the legions of Crassus, and realizing that the legions of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them, launched their full strength against Crassus' legions and were utterly destroyed. The Third Servile War was significant to the broader history of ancient Rome mostly in its effect on the careers of Pompey and Crassus. The two generals used their success in putting down the rebellion to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and the implied threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. Their actions as Consuls greatly furthered the Subversion of Roman political institutions and contributed to the eventual transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire . SLAVERY IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Through varying degrees throughout . Smith refers to the purchase of 10,000 slaves from Cilician pirates, while Caesar provides an example of the enslavement of 53,000 captive Aduatuci by a Roman army. While there was limited use for slaves as servants, craftsmen, and personal attendants, vast numbers of slaves worked in mines and on the agricultural lands of Sicily and southern Italia.Smith, ''Greek and Roman Antiquities'', "Servus", p. 1039 ; '''Livy''', ''The History of Rome'', 6:12 For the most part, slaves were treated harshly and oppressively during the Roman Republic an period. Under Republican law, a slave was not considered a person, but property. Owners could abuse, injure or even kill their own slaves without legal consequence. While there were many grades and types of slaves, the lowest — and most numerous — grades who worked in the fields and mines were subject to a life of hard physical labor.Smith, ''Greek and Roman Antiquities'', "Servus", pp. 1022–39 summarizes the complex body of Roman law pertaining to the legal status of slaves. This high concentration and oppressive treatment of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC, the First and Second Servile Wars, respectively, erupted in Sicily, where small bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. While these were considered serious Civil Disturbances by the Roman Senate , taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they were never considered a serious threat to the Republic. The Roman heartland of Italia had never seen a slave uprising, nor had slaves ever been seen as a potential threat to the city of Rome . This would all change with the Third Servile War. THE REBELLION BEGINS (73 BC) The Capuan revolt ]] In the Roman Republic of the . Plutarch claims 78 escaped, Livy claims 74, Appian "about seventy", and Florus says "thirty or rather more men". "Choppers and spits" is from ''Life of Crassus''. Once free, the escaped gladiators chose leaders from their number, selecting two Gallic slaves — is taken from the Loeb edition of Appian translated by Horace White, which states "...who had once served as a soldier with the Romans...". However, the translation by John Carter in the Penguin Classics version reads: "...who had once fought against the Romans and after being taken prisoner and sold...". There is some question as to Spartacus's nationality, however, as a ''Thraex'' (plural ''Thraces'' or ''Threses'') was a type of gladiator in Rome, so that the title "Thracian" may simply refer to the style of gladiatorial combat in which he was trained.Smith, ''Greek and Roman Antiquities'', "Gladiatores", p. 576 . These escaped slaves were able to defeat a small force of troops sent after them from ; - Florus and Appian make the claim that the slaves withdrew to Vesuvius, while Plutarch only mentions "a hill" in the account of Glaber's siege of the slave's encampment. Defeat of the praetorian armies As the revolt and raids were occurring in Campania — which was a vacation region of the rich and influential in Rome, and the location of many estates — the revolt quickly came to the attention of Roman authorities. They initially viewed the revolt as more a major Crime Wave than an armed rebellion. However, later that year, Rome dispatched military force under , blocking the only known way down the mountain. With the slaves thus contained, Glaber was content to wait until starvation forced the slaves to surrender.
A second expedition, under the . The victories of the rebel slaves did not come without a cost. At some time during these events, their leader Oenomaus was lost — presumably in battle — and is not mentioned further in the histories.Orosius, ''Histories'' 5.24.2; '''Bradley''', ''Slavery and Rebellion'', p.96. MOTIVATION AND LEADERSHIP OF THE ESCAPED SLAVES , c. 1830, displayed at the Louvre . An example of a modern heroic depiction of Spartacus.]] By the end of 73 BC, Spartacus and Crixus were in command of a large group of armed men with a proven ability to withstand Roman armies. What they intended to do with this force is somewhat difficult for modern readers to determine. Since the Third Servile War was ultimately an unsuccessful rebellion, no firsthand account of the slaves' motives and goals exists, and historians writing about the war propose contradictory theories.
Fictional accounts — such as Stanley Kubrick 's 1960 film ''Spartacus'' — sometimes portray Spartacus as an ancient Roman Freedom Fighter , struggling to change a corrupt Roman society and to end the Roman institution of slavery. Although this is not contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that the goal of the rebel slaves was to end slavery in the Republic, nor do any of Spartacus' actions seem specifically aimed at ending slavery. Even classical historians, who were writing only years after the events themselves, seem to be divided as to what the motives of Spartacus were. . — although this may have been no more than a reflection of Roman fears. If Spartacus did intend to march on Rome, it was a goal he must have later abandoned. Plutarch writes that Spartacus merely wished to escape northwards into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes. It is not certain that the slaves were a homogeneous group under the leadership of Spartacus. While this is the unspoken assumption of the Roman historians, this may be the Romans projecting their own hierarchical view of military power and responsibility on the '' Ad Hoc '' organization of the slaves. Certainly other slave leaders are mentioned — Crixus, Oenomaus, Gannicus, and Castus — and we cannot tell from the historical evidence whether they were aides, subordinates, or even equals leading groups of their own and traveling in convoy with Spartacus' people. DEFEAT OF THE CONSULAR ARMIES (72 BC) In the spring of 72 BC, the escaped slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul .
At this point in the history, there is a divergence in the classical sources as to the course of events which cannot be reconciled until the entry of Marcus Licinius Crassus into the war. The two most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch detail very different events. However, neither account directly ''contradicts'' the other, but simply reports different events, ignoring some events in the other account, and reporting events that are unique to that account. Appian's history 's version of events.]] According to Appian, the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus' men near Mount Garganus was the beginning of a long and complex series of military maneuvers that almost resulted in the Spartacan forces directly assaulting the city of Rome itself. After his victory over Crixus, Gellius moved northwards, following the main group of slaves under ; Bradley, ''Slavery and Rebellion'', p.121; '''Smith''', ''Greek and Roman Antiquities'', "Gladiatores", p.574 . - Note that gladiator contests as part of some funeral rituals in the Roman Republic were a high honor, according to Smith. This accords with Florus' passage ''"He also celebrated the obsequies of his officers who had fallen in battle with funerals like those of Roman generals, and ordered his captives to fight at their pyres"''. Following this victory, Spartacus pushed northwards with his followers (some 120,000) as fast as he could travel, "having burned all his useless material, killed all his prisoners, and butchered his pack-animals in order to expedite his movement". The defeated consular armies fell back to Rome to regroup while Spartacus' followers moved northward. The consuls again engaged Spartacus somewhere in the Picenum region, and once again were defeated.
Plutarch's history 's version of events.]] Plutarch's description of events differs significantly from that of Appian's.
Plutarch makes no further mention of events until the initial confrontation between Marcus Licinius Crassus and Spartacus in the spring of 71 BC, omitting the march on Rome and the retreat to Thurii described by Appian. However, as Plutarch describes Crassus forcing Spartacus' followers to retreat ''southwards'' from Picenum, one might infer that the rebel slaves approached Picenum from the south in early 71 BC, implying that they withdrew from Mutina into southern or central Italia for the winter of 72–71 BC.
THE WAR UNDER CRASSUS (71 BC) takes command of the Roman legions, confronts Spartacus, and forces the rebel slaves to retreat through Lucania to the straits near Messina . Plutarch claims this occurred in the Picenum region, while Appian places the initial battles between Crassus and Spartacus in the Samnium region.]] Despite the contradictions in the classical sources regarding the events of 72 BC, there seems to be general agreement that Spartacus and his followers were in the south of Italia in early 71 BC. Crassus takes command of the legions
Crassus and Spartacus When the forces of Spartacus moved northwards once again, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the borders of the region (Plutarch claims the initial battle between Crassus' legions and Spartacus' followers occurred near the , Mummius, to maneuver behind Spartacus, but gave them orders not to engage the rebels. When an opportunity presented itself, Mummius disobeyed, attacked the Spartacan forces, and was subsequently routed. Despite this initial loss, Crassus' engaged Spartacus and defeated him, killing some 6,000 of the rebels. The tide seemed to have turned in the war. Crassus' legions were victorious in several engagements, killing thousands of the rebel slaves, and forcing Spartacus to retreat south through Lucania to the straits near Messina . According to Plutarch , Spartacus made a bargain with Cilicia n pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily , where he intended to incite a slave revolt there and gather reinforcements. However, he was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebel slaves. Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape, but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily, and their efforts were abandoned.Florus, ''Epitome'', 2.8 ; '''Cicero''', ''Orations'', "For Quintius, Sextus Roscius...", 5.2
Reinforcement legions arrive; the end of the war broke the siege by Crassus' Legions and retreated toward the mountains near Petelia. Shows the initial skirmishes between elements of the two sides, the turn-about of the Spartacan forces for the final confrontation. Note the legions of Pompey moving in from the north to capture survivors.]] At this time, the legions of Pompey were returning to Italia , having put down the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania .
AFTERMATH The rebellion of the Third Servile War had been annihilated by Crassus.
The effects of the Third Servile War on the Roman attitudes towards slavery, and the institution of slavery in Rome, are harder to determine. Certainly the revolt had shaken the Roman people, who "out of sheer fear seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before."Davis, ''Readings in Ancient History'', p.90 The wealthy owners of the Latifundia began to reduce the number of agricultural slaves, opting to employ the large pool of formerly dispossessed freemen in Sharecropping arrangements.1 With the end of Julius Caesar 's Gallic Wars in 52 BC, the major Roman wars of conquest would cease until the reign of emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117 AD), and with them the supply of plentiful and inexpensive slaves through military conquest, further promoting the use of freemen laborers in agricultural estates. The legal status and rights of the Roman slave also began to change. During the time of ". While these legal changes occurred much too late to be ''direct'' results of the Third Servile War, they represent the legal codification of changes in the Roman attitude toward slaves which would have been evolving for decades. It is difficult to determine the extent to which the events of this war contributed to the changes in the use and legal rights of Roman slaves. It seems that the end of the Servile Wars coincided with the end of the period of most prominent use of slaves in Rome, and the beginning of a new perception of the slave within Roman society and law. The Third Servile War was the last of the Servile Wars, and Rome would not see another slave uprising of this type again. REFERENCES ;Classical works
;Modern books
;Multimedia
NOTES
EXTERNAL LINKS ;Classical historical works Works at LacusCurtius . Works at Livius.org . Works at The Internet Classics Archive . ;Modern works |
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