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Waldorf education (also known as '''Steiner''' or '''Steiner-Waldorf education''') is a Pedagogical movement based upon the Educational Philosophy of Rudolf Steiner , the founder of Anthroposophy "anthroposophy."Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD 10 Jan. 2007 that seeks to integrate practical, artistic, and intellectual elements into the teaching of all subjects.Rist and Schneider, ''Integrating Vocational and General Education: A Rudolf Steiner School'', Unesco Institute for Education, Hamburg 1979, ISBN 92-820-1024-4, p. 150 Learning is interdisciplinary and coordinated with "natural rhythms of everyday life". Teachers are given creative freedom to define curricula. The education's explicit task is to aid every child to unfold his or her unique destiny.
PEDAGOGY AND THEORY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The structure of the education follows Steiner's pedagogical model of Child Development ,Woods, Ashley and Woods, ''Steiner Schools in England'', University of West of England, Bristol: Research Report RR645 , section 1.5, "Findings from the survey and case studies" which views childhood as divided overall into seven-year developmental stages, each having its own learning requirements;Carolyn Pope Edwards, "Three Approaches from Europe" , Early Childhood Research and Practice, Spring 2002 the stages are similar to those described by Piaget. According to Waldorf pedagogy:
Pre-school and kindergarten: birth to age 6 or 7 Waldorf schools approach learning in early childhood through imitation and example.Ginsburg and Opper, ''Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development'', ISBN 0-13-675140-7, pp. 39-40Rist and Schneider, ''Integrating Vocational and Generla Education: A Rudolf Steiner School'', Unesco Institute for Education, Hamburg 1979, ISBN 92-820-1024-4, p. 146 In Waldorf schools oral language development is addressed through songs, poems and movement games. These include daily story time when a teacher usually tells a fairytale, often "by heart."Iona H. Ginsburg, "Jean Piaget and Rudolf Steiner: Stages of Child Development and Implications for Pedagogy", ''Teachers College Record Volume 84 Number 2, 1982, p. 327-337. Extensive time is given for guided free play in a classroom environment that is homelike and includes natural materials; such an environment is considered by Waldorf pedagogues as supportive of the physical, emotional and intellectual growth of the child through assimilative learning.Rist and Schneider, ''Integrating Vocational and General Education: A Rudolf Steiner School'', Unesco Institute for Education, Hamburg 1979, ISBN 92-820-1024-4, p. 144 Waldorf early childhood education emphasizes the importance of children experiencing the rhythms of the year and seasons, including seasonal festivals drawn from a variety of traditions. Waldorf schools usually celebrate Michaelmas and Martinmas in the Autumn , Christmas in Winter , Easter and May Day in the Spring , and St. John's Day in Summer .Ida Oberman, "Waldorf History: A Case Study of Institutional Memory", Paper presented to Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association, IL Mar 24-28, 1997, published US Department of Education - Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Waldorf kindergartens and lower grades discourage exposure to media influences such as Television , Computers and recorded music, as they believe these to be harmful to cognitive development.Earl J. Ogletree, ''Creativity and Waldorf Education: A Study'' 1991, ERIC #ED364440, op. cit., p14 Elementary education: age 6/7 to 14 See Also: Curriculum of the Waldorf schools In Waldorf schools elementary education may begin when the child is nearing or already seven years of age. The elementary school centers around a multi-disciplinary arts-based curriculum that includes Visual Arts , Drama , artistic movement ( Eurythmy ) and both vocal and instrumental Music . Throughout the elementary years, students learn two foreign languages; in English-speaking countries these are often German and either French or Spanish. Handwork and Farming and Gardening are also integral parts of the Waldorf curriculum. Throughout the elementary years, new material is introduced through stories and images, and academic instruction is integrated with the , including a verse written by Steiner for the start of a school day. An objective of most Waldorf schools is to have a single teacher Loop with a class throughout the elementary school years, teaching at least the principal academic lessons.Earl J. Ogletree, "Rudolf Steiner: Unknown Educator", ''The Elementary School Journal'', Vol. 74, No. 6. (Mar 1974) pp. 344-351. Four temperaments Waldorf teachers use the concept of the Four Temperaments to help interpret, understand and relate to the behaviour and personalities of children under their tutelage. The temperaments, Choleric , Phlegmatic , Melancholic , and Sanguine , are thought to express four basic Personality Type s, each possessing its own fundamental way of regarding and interacting with the world. Non-competitive environment in lower grades Waldorf elementary education allows for individual variations in the pace of learning, based upon the expectation that a child will grasp a concept or achieve a skill when he or she is ready.P. Bruce Uhrmacher, "Uncommon Schooling: A Historical Look at Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophy, and Waldorf Education", ''Curriculum Inquiry'', Vol. 25, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp. 381-406 Cooperation takes priority over competition.Ray McDermott, Mary E. Henry, Cynthia Dillard, Paul Byers, Freda Easton, Ida Oberman, Bruce Uhrmacher, "Waldorf education in an inner-city public school", ''Urban Review'', June 1996 This approach also extends to physical education; competitive team sports are introduced in upper grades. Secondary education In most Waldorf schools, pupils enter secondary education when they are about fourteen years old. The education is now wholly carried out by specialist teachers. Though the education now focuses much more strongly on academic subjects,Rist and Schneider, ''Integrating Vocational and General Education: A Rudolf Steiner School'', Unesco Institute for Education, Hamburg 1979, ISBN 92-820-1024-4, pp. 146-8 students normally continue to take courses in art, music, and crafts. The curriculum is meant to focus on helping the student develop a sense of competence as well as responsibility and purpose.Freda Easton, The Waldorf impulse in education:Schools as communities that educate the whole child by integrating artistic and academic work, Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University Teachers College, 1995, p. 144 Developing understanding of ethical principles and creating social responsibility is stressed now as well.ibid. At the secondary level, pupils are encouraged to develop their own independent and creative thinking processes. CURRICULUM See Also: Curriculum of the Waldorf schools There are widely-agreed guidelines for the Waldorf curriculum,Martyn Rawson and Tobias Richter, ''The Educational Tasks and Content of the Steiner Waldorf Curriculum'', E. A. Karl Stockmeyer, ''Rudolf Steiner's Curriculum for Waldorf Schools'', Steiner Schools Fellowship, 1985Rena Upitis, ''In praise of romance'' supported by the schools' common principles;Woods, Ashley and Woods, ''Steiner Schools in England'', University of West of England, Bristol: Research Report RR645 , section 5.2, "Curriculum" nevertheless, independent Waldorf schools are autonomous institutions not required to follow a prescribed curriculum. Government-funded Waldorf-method schools may be required to incorporate aspects of state curricula. Eurythmy See Also: Eurythmy Eurythmy , a movement art, is largely unique to the Waldorf schools. Usually accompanying spoken texts or music, eurythmy includes elements of role play and dance, and is designed to provide individuals and classes a "sense of integration and harmony". Standardized testing Waldorf pedagogues generally consider Standardized Tests problematic, especially in the elementary years. Despite their lessened exposure to standardized testing, U.S. Waldorf pupils' SAT Scores have usually come above the national average, especially on verbal measures. Studies comparing students' performance on College-entrance Examinations In Germany found that as a group, Waldorf graduates passed the exam in percentages far greater than students graduating from state-sponsored schools. Educational successes of private Waldorf schools may partially reflect the social status of their students. ORIGINS AND HISTORY See Also: History of Waldorf schools Rudolf Steiner wrote his first book on education, ''The Education of the Child'', in 1907 . The first school based upon these principles was opened in 1919 in response to a request by Emil Molt , the owner and managing director of the Waldorf-Astoria Cigarette Company in Stuttgart , Germany . This is the source of the name ''Waldorf,'' which is now trademarked for use in association with the educational method. The Stuttgart school grew rapidly, opening parallel classes, and by 1938 schools inspired by the original school or its pedagogical principles had been founded in the USA , UK , Switzerland , the Netherlands , Norway , Austria , Hungary , and in other towns in Germany. Political interference from the Nazi regime limited and ultimately closed most Waldorf schools in Europe; the affected schools, including the original school, were reopened after the Second World War.P. Bruce Uhrmacher, "Uncommon Schooling: A Historical Look at Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophy and Waldorf Education", ''Curriculum Inquiry, Vol. 25, No. 4. Winter 1995 The growth in school numbers through 2005 is shown in the accompanying chart. Waldorf schools have traditionally been numerically and culturally centered in Europe; the number of non-European schools has been slowly increasing, however, leading to a trend toward reinterpreting the formerly Euro-centric curriculum.Alduino Mazzone, ''Waldorf Teacher Education'' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Adelaide), p. 164 GOVERNANCE One of Waldorf education's central premises is that all schools (not only Waldorf schools) should be both or Head Teacher , but rather by a number of groups, including:
Parents are encouraged to take an active part in non-curricular aspects of school life. There are coordinating bodies for Waldorf education at both the national (e.g. the '' Association of Waldorf Schools of North America '' and the '' Steiner Waldorf Schools Fellowship '' in the UK and Ireland ) and international level (e.g. International Association for Waldorf Education and The European Council for Steiner Waldorf Education (ECSWE) ). These organizations certify the use of the registered names "Waldorf" and "Steiner school" and offer accreditations, often in conjunction with regional independent school associations. WASC Accrediting commission for schools Some Waldorf schools are independently accredited by governmental authorities. Rhode Island accreditation SOCIAL MISSION Social purpose Waldorf education was developed by Rudolf Steiner as an attempt to establish a school system that would not only facilitate the inclusive, broadly based, balanced development of children, but would also act in a socially responsible and transformative fashion.Robert McDermott, ''The Essential Steiner'', Harper San Francisco 1984 ISBN 0-06-065345-0 Intercultural links in socially polarized communities Waldorf schools have linked polarized communities in a variety of settings.
Links to UNESCO The , Africa and Asia UNESCO List of project schools to be associated project schools . UNESCO also sponsored an exhibit about the Waldorf schools at the 44th Session of their International Conference on Education in Geneva. An exhibition catalogue was published by UNESCO under the title ''Waldorf Education Exhibition Catalog On Occasion of the 4th Session of the International Conference on Education of UNESCO in Geneva''. UNESCO Catalog SPIRITUAL FOUNDATIONS Anthroposophy's role in Waldorf education See Also: Anthroposophy Both historically and philosophically, Waldorf education grows out of Anthroposophy 's view of Child Development , which stands as the basis for the educational theory, methodology of teaching and Curriculum . Waldorf pedagogics see that the teacher has "a sacred task in helping each child's soul and spirit grow". Steiner's " Extra-sensory Anthropology " has been the source of criticisms of Waldorf education in Germany. While anthroposophy is not generally taught as a subject, the degree to which anthroposophy is described by the schools as the philosophical underpinning of Waldorf education typically varies from school to school. This has at times, led to parents objecting that the role of anthroposophy in the educational method had not been disclosed to them, prior to enrollment. One study noted that many Waldorf teachers display an uncritical attitude toward anthroposophy and questioned the pedagogy's reliance on a single theory of child development.Mary Barr Sturbaum, ''Transformational Possibilities of Schooling: A Study of Waldorf Education'', Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1997 Spirituality and religion Throughout the curriculum, Waldorf education is implicitly infused with spirituality. The curriculum includes a wide range of religious traditions without being oriented in favor of any single tradition. In Germany , where religious classes are a mandatory school offering in some federal states (although never obligatory for individual students to take), "Education and Social Cohesion--Religion in the Classroom" , Institute for Cultural Diplomacy each religious confession provides its own teachers for the Waldorf schools' religion classes; the schools also offer an open religion class for those who have no confessional affiliation. Religion classes are universally absent from American Waldorf schools.Mark Riccio, ''Rudolf Steiner's Impulse in Education'', dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, 2000, p. 87 Celebrations and festivals Festivals play an important role in Waldorf schools, which generally celebrate seasonal observances by showing work of students in the class. The faculty of each individual school decides which festivals and celebrations would best meet the needs and traditions of the students in their particular school. Waldorf theories and practices have been adapted by schools to the historical and cultural traditions of the surrounding communities, whereby there is wide variation to what extent educators detach from Waldorf education's traditionally European Christian orientation. Examples of such adaptation include the Waldorf schools in Israel and Japan , which celebrate festivals of their particular spiritual heritage, and classes in the Milwaukee Urban Waldorf school, which have adopted traditions with African American and Native American heritages. RECEPTION AND CONTROVERSY Reception by mainstream educationalists
Some Waldorf methods have also been adopted by teachers in both public/state and other Private schools.Stephanie Luster Bravmann, Nancy Stewart Green, Pamela Bolotin Joseph, Edward R. Mikel, Mark A. Windschitl, ''Cultures of Curriculum'', Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000. p81, " who developed the Waldorf School system of education, is another whose ideas are reproduced, often less in whole than in part...in an expanding number of American public and private schools today." Reading and literacy Current mainstream pedagogical methods in the U.S. call for teaching reading readiness beginning in preschool for ages 3-5. According to the U.S. Department of Education, "School readiness is a goal around which the entire nation has enthusiastically rallied.... However, there is more that needs to be done. Many young children are still entering kindergarten without the prerequisite language, cognitive, and early reading and writing skills they need in order to benefit fully from early formal reading instruction." U.S. Department of Education, Early Ready First - Frequently Asked Questions In contrast, the Waldorf curriculum typically does not include direct reading or writing instruction until age 7.Janet Howard (1992). ''Literacy learning in a Waldorf school: A belief in the sense of structure and story.'' Ed.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Albany. Todd Oppenheimer, a freelance journalist, ''Speaker's Biography: Todd Oppenheimer, Author-"The Flickering Mind"'', Milken Institute contrasted the Waldorf schools' approach to reading to the approach used in most other American schools: Emphasis on the creative also guides the aspect of a Waldorf education that probably frightens parents more than any other: the relaxed way that children learn to read. Whereas students at more-competitive schools are mastering texts in first grade, sometimes even in kindergarten, most Waldorf students aren't reading fully until the third grade. And if they're still struggling at that point, many Waldorf teachers don't worry. In combination with another Waldorf oddity -- sending children to first grade a year later than usual -- this means that students may not be reading until age nine or ten, several years after many of their peers. ... Child psychologist David Elkind cites evidence that late readers ultimately fare better at reading and other subjects than early readers. Elkind also separately examined Steiner and the Waldorf schools' non-academic focus with hands-on exploration and conceptualization in early childhood education.David Elkind, "Much Too Early", ''Education Next, a Journal of Opinion and Research'', Hoover Institute, Standford University, Summer 2001 {Link without Title} According to Lucy Calkins, a reading specialist at the Teachers College of Columbia University , in most public schools the students who start reading later tend to do worse. Calkins also says that Waldorf students might also benefit slightly if they started earlier, but stated that she "would not necessarily be worried in a Waldorf school." Adding, "The foundation of literacy is talk and play." Oppenheimer also cautions "the system isn't fail-safe," noting that faith in the Waldorf system for reading instruction can lead teachers to overlook genuine learning disabilities including Dyslexia , in some students. Concerns over immunizations See Also: PARSIFAL study Rudolf Steiner (the founder of Waldorf education) suggested that children's spirits benefited from being tempered in the fires of a good inflammation.Arthur Allen, ''Bucking the Herd'', The Atlantic Monthly, September 2002 A report about a growing trend against childhood immunizations describes parents of a Waldorf school in Colorado who believed vaccinations had harmful effects. Concerns have been raised that unvaccinated students, some of whom attended Waldorf schools, may have been compromising Public Health by spreading Disease , even among vaccinated populations.Katherine Seligman, ''Vaccination backlash'', The San Francisco Chronicle May 25, 2003 White, ''A shot in the dark'', Boulder Weekly, Aug 8 2002 [http://www.boulderweekly.com/archive/080802/coverstory.html "Thomas R. DeGregori, ''The Deadly Perils of Rejected Knowledge'', American Council on Science and Health, Sept 13, 2002 [http://www.acsh.org/healthissues/newsID.412/healthissue_detail.asp] In response, The European Council of Waldorf Schools, representing 630 of the 900 Waldorf schools world wide, European Council of Waldorf Schools has stated unequivocally that opposition to Immunisation per se – or resistance to national strategies for childhood immunisation in general – forms no part of the goals of Waldorf education. It also stated that a matter such as whether or not to inoculate a child against communicable disease should be a matter for parental choice, and that insofar as schools have any role to play in these matters, it is in making available a range of balanced information both from the appropriate national agencies and from qualified health professionals with expertise in the field. Consensus statement, agreed by members of the ECSWE, meeting in Copenhagen, 21 January 2001. [http://www.steinerwaldorfeurope.org/html/news_vaccination.htm] Controversies about publicly-funded Waldorf methods schools California In 1998 a lawsuit was filed in California by a small group, PLANS , against two government school districts which employed Waldorf methods in two of their schools. PLANS argued that publicly-financed Waldorf methods schools violated the principle of the Separation Of Church And State in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment To The United States Constitution . The group also protested at other government schools in California, claiming the Waldorf training and methods were rooted in a New Age , cult-like religion.Beth Reinhard, "Public Waldorf School in Calif. Under Attack", ''Education Week'' June 25, 1997Linda Jacobson, "Court Allows Lawsuit Over Waldorf Teaching Practices To Progress", ''Education Week'' October 13, 1999 At the trial, held in 2005 , the court ruled against PLANS, dismissing the case On Its Merits . The judgment followed 30 minutes of attorney questioning during which PLANS told the trial judge that it could present no witnesses qualified to testify in the case who met the requirements of prior evidence rulings. PLANS appealed the outcome in 2006 .Chrisanne Beckner, "Change of PLANS", Newsreview.com Sep 22 2005Chrisanne Beckner, "Separation anxiety", Newsreview.com Jan 26 2006 Today there are 20 public Waldorf methods schools in the state of California. Victoria, Australia Publicly-funded Steiner schools in Victoria , Australia were challenged by parents and religious experts over concerns that the schools derive from a spiritual system, Anthroposophy ; parents and administrators of the school, as well as Victorian Department of Education authorities, presented divergent views as to whether spiritual or religious dimensions influence pedagogical practice. If present, these would contravene the secular basis of the public education system.Steiner education in state schools. ABC National Radio. 25 July 2007 Religion Report, I , 1 August 2007 Religion Report II A number of parents also say their schools discouraged immunizations.Milanda Rout, "Questions about Steiner's classrooms", The Australian July 28 2007 A number of State-run schools in and Reggio Emilia streams to be run in state schools.Milanda Rout, "Early concern about Steiner method", The Australian July 28 2007 There are currently 10 Steiner programs operating in government-run schools in Australia. STUDIES OF WALDORF EDUCATION U.K. comparison with mainstream education A , ''Steiner Schools in England'', University of West of England, Bristol: Research Report RR645
There were also aspects of mainstream practice which, the researchers recommended, could inform good practice in Waldorf schools:
Australian study of academic success at university An Australian study comparing the academic performance of students at university level found that students who had been at Waldorf schools significantly outperformed their peers from non-Waldorf schools in both the humanities and the sciences. "Sunday Night" broadcast of July 15, 2007 U.S. Waldorf schools survey A 1995 survey of U.S. Waldorf schools found that parents overall experienced the Waldorf schools as achieving their major aims for students and describe the education as one that "integrates the aesthetic, spiritual and interpersonal development of the child with rigorous intellectual development", preserving students enthusiasm for learning so that they develop a better sense of self-confidence and self-direction. Some parents described upper grades teachers as overextended, without sufficient time to relate to parental needs and input, and wished for more open and reciprocal parent-school support. Both parents and students sometimes described colleges of teachers as being insular and unresponsive. The students overall were positive about the school and its differences; experienced the school as a "community of friends"; and spoke of the opportunity to grow and develop through the broad range of activities offered, to learn when they were ready to learn, to develop imagination, and to come to understand the world as well as oneself. Many students spoke of the kindness of their peers and of learning to think things through clearly for themselves, not to jump to conclusions, and to remain positive in the face of problems and independent of pressure from others to think as they do. Improvements the students suggested included more after-school sports programs, more physical education classes, more preparation for standardized testing, a class in world politics and computer classes. Faculty, parents and students were united in expressing a desire to improve the diversity of the student body, especially by increasing representation of minority groups such as African-Americans and Hispanic Americans . Milwaukee Urban Waldorf School Dr. Richard R. Doornek, Educational Curriculum specialist with the Milwaukee Public Schools in Wisconsin , reported in 1996 that since switching to Waldorf methods their Urban Waldorf Elementary School has shown an increase in parental involvement, a reduction in suspensions, improvements in standardized test scores for both reading and writing (counter to the district trend), while expenditures per pupil are below many regular district programs.Phaizon Rhys Wood, ''Beyond Survival: A Case Study of the Milwaukee Urban Waldorf School'', dissertation, School of Education, University of San Francisco, 1996 The school converted to Waldorf methods in 1991, when it had 350 students, about 90% of them African American. On the Milwaukee public schools standard third-grade evaluation, the number of children reading above grade level went from 26% in 1992 to 63% in 1995. In 1996 a team of seven mainstream educational researchers conducted a study of the school. In a report published at the conclusion of the study, the school was cited as a positive learning environment, in which the students as well as their background seemed to be treated with respect, and where pupils are both encouraged and trusted to be responsible. The report quoted the school principal's evaluation of the Waldorf approach: "Practical and effective, not first and foremost in academics, but in allowing children to be children again...Waldorf gives you connection to your environment, to nature, to school, to others." The article also discussed the challenge of meeting societal racism and unsuspected biases of teachers and students in modern-day America: Many of the children seemed to have a distorted and negative picture of blackness, an internalized prejudice that runs deep ... Too often, we heard degrading terms...both in the classroom and at play ... The staff and faculty at Urban Waldorf represented a wide gamut of opinions on race and the possible presence of racism at the school. Some were quick to point to what they thought were unquestionable cases of racism inherent in Waldorf philosophy and practice, and others were as quick to deny the possibility of racism at any level, in any practice. The research noted that teachers "have found a way to put respect for the children before other considerations", and that the school was attempting to combat racism: They also understand that they must try. And so we found teacher study groups on African American culture (particularly on storytelling and folklore), and various individual projects on urban life ... the Urban Waldorf faculty has a commendable level of engagement with the difficulties of racism. A further study commented on Waldorf's adaptable and individualized curriculum as being a factor in the school's success in addressing children of poverty and children of color, while criticizing the split between private and public Waldorf schools and the lack of greater efforts to implement Waldorf methods in public education.Phaizon Rhys Wood, ''Beyond Survival: A Case Study of the Milwaukee Urban Waldorf School'', D.Ed. dissertation, Univ. of San Francisco, 1996, p. 135, 149, 154ff T. E. Mathews Community School The T. E. Mathews Community School in Yuba County , California serves high-risk juvenile offenders, many of whom have Learning Disabilities . The school switched to Waldorf methods in the 1990s. A study of the school found that students had "improved attitudes toward learning, better social interaction and excellent academic progress."Arline Monks, "Breaking Down the Barriers to Learning: The Power of the Arts" , ''Journal of Court, Community and Alternative Schools'' A 1999 study of the school identified the integration of the arts "into every curriculum unit and almost every classroom activity" as the most effective tool to help students overcome patterns of failure. The study found significant improvements in reading and math scores, student participation, focus, openness and enthusiasm, as well as emotional stability, civility of interaction and tenacity.Babineaux, R., ''Evaluation report: Thomas E. Mathews Community School'', Stanford University 1999, cited in Monks, op. cit. Other studies
{Link without Title} A second, Swedish study found the incidence of Atopy or allergy-like symptoms in pupils in Waldorf schools to be half (13%) of that in neighboring non-Waldorf schools (25%).Klotter, Jule, "Anthroposophic lifestyle and allergies in children", ''Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients'' 274 (May 2006): 24(2) SEE ALSO NOTES REFERENCES Works by Rudolf Steiner See Also: list of Rudolf Steiner's works on education
Note: all of Steiner's lectures on Waldorf education are available in PDF form at this research site Selected works by other authors See Also: List of works on Waldorf education
EXTERNAL LINKS Further discussion, and reviews of Waldorf education
Waldorf resources
Schools and colleges ;Associations of Waldorf Schools
;Finding a Waldorf School ;Teacher training programs
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