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Shiva (, and traditions that focus on the Goddess () are three of the most influential denominations in HinduismFlood (1996), p. 17.. Shiva is one of the five primary forms of the Divine in Smartism , a denomination of Hinduism that puts particular emphasis on five deities, the other four being Vishnu , Devi , Ganesha , and Surya .Flood (1996), p. 17. Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies Brahma , Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the Trimurti . In the Trimurti system, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.Zimmer (1972) p. 124. ETYMOLOGY The Sanskrit word ( Indra uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3) The Sanskrit word means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects.Apte, p. 927 It is used as as adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism .For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of ('''') and which focus on the deity ... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT For the early history see Rudra The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India.Flood (1996), p. 17Keay, p.xxvii.Modern historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional cults being amalgamated into a single figure.Keay, p. xxvii. How the ''persona'' of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented.For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147. Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows: Like , is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: . Like , the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.Michaels, p. 215. An example of assimilation took place in .Courtright, p. 205.For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176. Shakti M. Gupta clarifies the possible confusion between these two identifications by explaining that one of Karttikeya's functions is as the patron deity of thieves, and it is in this capacity that the tribe called Ramoshis, who are thieves by profession, worship Khandoba.For association of Kartikkeya as patron of thieves and worship by the Ramoshis as Khandoba, see: Gupta, p. 40. Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya.Courtright, p. 205. The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.Mate, p. 176. The Pashupati seal A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.Flood (1996), pp. 28-29. This " Pashupati " (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit ')For translation of ' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312. seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29. Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.Flood (2003), pp. 204-205. Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying: Rudra See Also: Rudra Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra Michaels, p. 216. and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring Storm , is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.Doniger, pp. 221-223. The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: '''')For as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910. and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root ''-'' which means "to injure" or "to kill"For root ''-'' see: Apte, p. 910. and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name as "One who can kill the forces of darkness". The names ("Bowman")Chidbhavananda, p. 33. and ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")Chidbhavananda, p. 33.For translation of as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: . also refer to archery. ATTRIBUTES OF SHIVA
FORMS AND DEPICTIONS According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes.For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150. The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him. Destroyer versus benefactor In the Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terriffic (Sanskrit: ') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva cult of later ages are to be found here."For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later cult forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7. In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: . The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name '' (Sanskrit: ), "Terrible" or "Frightful"For as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column. is a fierce form associated with annihilation.For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471. In contrast, the name (''Sanskrit'' शङ्कर), "Beneficent" or "Conferring Happiness"Kramrisch, p. 481. reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya.For adoption of the name by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.For dating Shankaracarya as 788-820 CE see: Flood (1996), p. 92. The name '''' (''Sanskrit'': ), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.For translation of as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481.For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177. Ascetic versus householder , Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya)]] He is depicted as both an ascetic ) refers to his association with yoga.For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150. While Vedic Religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic Period that concepts of Tapas , Yoga , and Asceticism , became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32. As a family man and householder he has a wife, , the Divine Mother, and with Shakti (divine energy). Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Karthikeya and Ganesha . Karttikeya is popular in South India by the names Subrahmanya and Murugan , and in North India he is more popular by the name Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''. Nataraja Chola Statue depicting Shiva dancing as '' Nataraja ''. Metropolitan Museum Of Art , New York City.]] See Also: Nataraja The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: ', "Lord of Dance") is popular.For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.For interpretation of the ' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157. The names ''Nartaka'' ("Dancer") and ''Nityanarta'' ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: . His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: '''') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Southern India in particular.For popularity of the '''' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63. See Also: Dakshinamurthy (''Sanskrit'': )For iconographic description of the form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47. literally describes a form (') of Shiva facing south ('). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of Yoga , music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472. This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly south Indian in character.For characterization of as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62. Elements of this ''motif'' can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as , see: Chakravarti, p. 155. Ardhanarishvara . Siva in the form of Ardhanarisvara ]] See Also: Ardhanari An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.Goldberg, p. 1. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, ('''') is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1. See Also: Tripura (mythology) Shiva is often depicted in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, ''Tripura'', of the Asuras.For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46. Shiva's name (''Sanskrit'': ), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.For the form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49. Lingam See Also: Lingam ''Also see:'' '' Jyotirlinga '' Apart from antropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a '' Lingam '' is also important.Michaels, p. 216.Flood (1996), p. 29.Tattwananda, pp. 49-52. These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. THE FIVE MANTRAS (blue figure, to left of Shiva), Brahma (four headed figure to the right of Shiva), Ganesha (elephant-headed son of Shiva, bottom left) and other deities. Painting from LACMA ]] Five is a sacred number for Shiva.For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182. One of his most important mantras has five syllables ('''').For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182. Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the '''':For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189. As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185. These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.For the epithets ' and ', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of , see: Apte, p. 578, middle column. Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187. But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch: Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.Kramrisch, p. 184. According to the ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'': One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of is of the character of the fivefold Brahman . (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182. RELATIONSHIPS IN THE PANTHEON Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Agni , Indra , Prajapati , Vayu , and others.For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70. Agni Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as ." see: Chakravarti, p. 17. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the '' Nirukta '', an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also".For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155. The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
In the . The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.RV 8.49; 10.155. In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11. Indra In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8. In the Rig Veda the term '''' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,For text of RV 2.20.3a as and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2. 6.45.17,For text of RV 6.45.17 as and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: . and 8.93.3.For text of RV 8.93.3 as and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2. Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.RV 7.19. Vishnu (right half - blue) and Shiva (left half - white)]] During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 BCE) both were gaining ascendance.For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in progress by 1000-700 BCE see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2. By the Puranic period both deities had major cults that competed with one another for devotees.For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111. Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities. Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.For Visnu becoming Shiva in (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as Narasimha , the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu , an ardent devotee of Shiva.For as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49. Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. was given a '' Linga '' as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Deoghar in Bihar to purify himself and asked Vishnu in the guise of a Brahmin to hold the ''linga'' for him, but after some time Vishnu put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the ''linga'', and it is said to remain there ever since. A number of ''lingas'' in southern India are associated with this story, including the famous Mahābaleśvara linga at Gokarna .For the story of and the ''linga'' see: Chakravarti, p. 168. AVATARS Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars . Adi Shankara , the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.Padma Purana 6.236.7-11 In the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5 NAMES OF SHIVA , Delhi ]] In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that ''uniquely'' describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions. Sahasranamas There are at least eight different versions of the '' Shiva Sahasranama '', devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 () of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradion.This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5. The eight versions analyzed by Ram Karan Sharma are: :1. ''Mahabharata'' 13.17.30-150 ( Version) :2. ''Linga Purana'' (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata version. :3. ''Linga Purana'' (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources :4. ''Shivapurana'' 4.35.1-131. :5. ''Mahabharata'' ( version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to . It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180. :6. ''Vayu Purana'' (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata version. :7. ''Brahmanda Purana'' (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version. :8. '' Upapurana'' (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin. Chamakam The Shri Rudram Chamakam , also known as the ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976). SEE ALSO NOTES REFERENCES
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