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symbol]] The Romanian Communist Party ( in Romania . Successor to the Bolshevik wing of the Socialist Party Of Romania , it gave ideological endorsement to Communist Revolution and the disestablishment of Greater Romania . The PCR was a minor and illegal grouping for much of the Interwar Period , and submitted to direct Comintern control. During the 1930s, most of its activists were imprisoned or took refuge in the Soviet Union , which led to the creation of separate and competing factions until the 1950s. The Communist Party emerged as a powerful actor on the Romanian political scene in August 1944, when it became involved in the Royal Coup that toppled the pro- Nazi government of Ion Antonescu . With support from Soviet Occupation Forces , the PCR was able to force King Michael I into exile, and establish the Romanian Communist Regime in 1948, becoming the dominant, and later single Ruling Party until 1989. In 1947, the Communist Party absorbed much of the Social Democratic Party , while attracting various new members. In the early 1950s, the PCR's dominant wing around Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej , with support from Joseph Stalin , defeated all the other factions and achieved full control over the party and country. After 1953, the Romanian Communists did not apply De-Stalinization , and, in time, theorized a "national path" to Communism . This Nationalist stance was continued under the leadership of Nicolae Ceauşescu . Following an episode of Liberalization in the late 1960s, Ceauşescu again adopted a hard line, and imposed the '' July Theses ''. At the time, the PCR massively and artificially increased in size, while being entirely submitted to the will of its General Secretary . Its disappearence was a direct consequence of the 1989 Revolution . The PCR coordinated several organizations during its existence, including the Union Of Communist Youth , and organized training for its Cadre s at the Ştefan Gheorghiu Academy . In addition to '' Scînteia '', its official platform and main newspaper between 1931 and 1989, the Communist Party issued several local and national publications at various points in its history (including, after 1944, '' România Liberă ''). HISTORY Socialist-Communists: creation Main article: Socialist Party Of Romania . ''The mine owner to the miner: "A socialist, you say? My son is a socialist too, but without going on Strike ..., that is why he already has his own capital..."'']] The party was founded in 1921 when the , a group of moderates (including Ioan Flueraş , Iosif Jumanca , Leon Ghelerter , and Constantin Popovici ) left at different intervals beginning in May 1921.Frunză, p.25-28 The party renamed itself the Socialist-Communist Party ('''') and, soon after, the '''Communist Party of Romania''' ('''' or ''PCdR''). Competition with other socialist groups brought a drastic reduction in its membership — from the ca. 40,000 members the Socialist Party had, the new group was left with as much as 2,000Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.45; Communist press, 1923, in Frunză, p.30 or as little as 500;Allegations in the Social-Democratic press, 1923, in Frunză, p.30; Iordachi I.2 at the end of , 1944 , our party had, in Bucharest , 80 party members, not more, not less. And throughout the land our party had less than 1,000 party members, including our comrades in prisons and Concentration Camp s." (Rangheţ, April 25 - 27 , 1945 , in Colt). In the late 1940s, Ana Pauker allegedly gave the same estimate (Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.45; Frunză, p.202). The early Communist Party had little influence in Romania due to the country's lack of Industrial Development , which resulted in a relatively small Working Class and a large peasant population, the minor impact of Marxism among Romanian Intellectual s, the success of state repression in driving the party underground and limiting its activities, and the party's "anti-national" policy as it began to be stated in the 1920s—supervised by the Comintern, and calling for the breakup of Greater Romania , which was regarded as a Colonial entity "illegally occupying" Transylvania , Dobruja , Bessarabia and Bukovina (regions that had been denied the right of Self-determination ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.18-45; Frunză, p.38-48, 63-72; Iordachi, I.2; Pokivailova, p.48; Troncotă, p.19-20; Veiga, p.222 In 1924, the Comintern provoked Romanian authorities by encouraging the Tatarbunary Uprising in southern Bessarabia, in an attempt to create a Moldavian republic on Romanian territory;Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.36; Frunză, p.71; Troncotă, p.19; Veiga, p.115 also in that year, a Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic , roughly corresponding to Transnistria , was established inside the Soviet Union. At the same time, the Left-wing political spectrum was dominated by Poporanism , an original ideology which partly reflected Narodnik influence, placed its focus on the peasantry (as it notably did with the early advocacy of Cooperative Farming by Ion Mihalache 's Peasants' Party ), and usually strongly supported the post-1919 territorial status quo—although they tended to oppose the Centralized System it had come to imply. (In turn, the early conflict between the PCdR and other minor socialist groups has been attributed to the legacy of Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea 's quasi-Poporanist ideas inside the latter, as an intellectual basis for the rejection of Leninism .)Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.47-48 The PCdR's "foreign" image was due to the fact that was of Romanian ethnicity. Interwar Romania had a minority population of 30%, and it was largely from this section that the party drew its membership—a large percentage of it was comprised of Jews , Hungarians and Bulgarians .Iordachi, I.2; Pokivailova, p.47 Actual or perceived ethnic discrimination against these minorities added to the appeal of Revolutionary ideas in their midst.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.18 PCdR: Comintern and internal wing Shortly after its creation, the PCdR's leadership was alleged by authorities to have been involved in Max Goldstein 's bomb attack on the Parliament Of Romania ; all major party figures, including the general secretary Gheorghe Cristescu , were prosecuted in the Dealul Spirii Trial .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.27-30 Constantin Argetoianu , the Minister Of The Interior in the Alexandru Averescu , Take Ionescu , and Ion I. C. Brătianu cabinets, equated Comintern membership with Conspiracy , ordered the first in a series of repressions, and, in the context of trial, allowed for several communist activists (including Leonte Filipescu ) to be shot while in custody — alleging that they had attempted to flee.Troncotă, p.18-19 Consequently, he stated his belief that "communism is over in Romania",Argetoianu, June 1922, in Troncotă, p.19 which allowed for a momentary relaxing of pressures — begun by King Ferdinand 's granting of an Amnesty to the tried PCdR.Troncotă, p.19 The PCdR was thus unable to send representatives to the Comintern, and was virtually replaced abroad by a delegation of various activists who had fled to the Soviet Union at various intervals (Romanian groups in Moscow and Kharkiv , the sources of a "''Muscovite wing''" in the following decades).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.37, 44; Deletant & Ionescu, p.4-5; Frunză, p.38-39 The interior party only survived as an underground group after it was outlawed by the Brătianu government through the ''Mârzescu Law'' (named after its proponent, Minister of Justice Gheorghe Gh. Mârzescu ), passed in April 1924; Comintern sources indicate that, around 1928, it was losing contact with Soviet overseers.Frunză, p.32-33 In 1925, the question of Romania's borders as posed by the Comintern led to protests by Cristescu and, eventually, to his exclusion from the party (''see Balkan Communist Federation '').Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.38-39; Frunză, p.49-50 Around the time of the party's Fifth Congress in 1931, the Muscovite wing became the PCdR's main political factor: Joseph Stalin replaced the entire party leadership, including the general secretary Vitali Holostenco — appointing instead Alexander Stefanski , who was at the time a member of the Communist Party Of Poland .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.41; Frunză, p.51-53 Through regained Comintern control, the interior wing began organizing itself as a more efficient conspirative network.Troncotă, p.20-22 The onset of the Great Depression in Romania, and the series of strikes infiltrated (and sometimes provoked) by the interior wing signified relative successes (''see Lupeni Strike Of 1929 ''), but gains were not capitalized — as lack of ideological appeal and suspicion of Stalinist directives remained notable factors.Frunză, p.58-62 In parallel, its leadership suffered changes that were meant to place it under an ethnic Romanian and working class leadership — the emergence of a Stalin-backed group around Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej before and after the large-scale Griviţa Strikes .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.41-43; Frunză, p.53-62 In 1934, Stalin's '' Popular Front '' doctrine was not fully passed into the local party's politics, mainly due to the Soviet territorial policies (culminating in the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ) and the widespread suspicion other left-wing forces maintained toward the Comintern.Frunză, p.85; Pokivailova, p.48 The Communists did, nevertheless, attempt to reach consensus with other groupings on several occasions (in 1934-1943, they established alliances with the Ploughmen's Front , the Hungarian People's Union , and the Socialist Peasants' Party ), and small Communist groups became active in the leftist sections of mainstream parties.Veiga, p.223 In 1934, Petre Constantinescu-Iaşi and other PCdR supporters created '' Amicii URSS '', a pro-Soviet group reaching out to Intellectual s, itself banned later in the same year.Cioroianu, ''Pe unerii...'', p.110-118; "Comunismul şi cel care a trăit Iluzia" During the 1937 Elections , the Communists backed Iuliu Maniu and the National Peasants' Party against King Carol II and the Gheorghe Tătărescu government (who had intensified repression of Communist groups),Veiga, p.223 finding themselves placed in an unusual position after the Iron Guard , a Fascist movement, signed an electoral pact with Maniu;Veiga, p.235 participation in the move was explained by Communist Historiography as provoked by the Social-Democrats ' refusal to collaborate with the PCdR.Frunză, p.84 PCdR: late 1930s decline In the years following the elections, the PCdR entered a phase of rapid decline, coinciding with the increasingly Authoritarian tone of King Carol's regime (but in fact inaugurated by the 1936 trial of Ana Pauker and other high-ranking Communists in Craiova ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii..'', p.43, 170-171; Frunză, p.84, 102-103 Journals viewed as associates of the party were closed down, and all suspected PCdR activists faced detention (''see Doftana Prison '').Pokivailova, p.48; Veiga, p.223-224 Siguranţa Statului , the Romanian Secret Police , infiltrated the small interior wing and probably obtained valuable information about its activities.Pokivailova, p.47 The financial resources of the party, ensured by Soviet support and by various satellite organizations (collecting funds in the name of causes such as Pacifism or support for the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War ), were severely drained — by political difficulties at home, as well as, after 1939, by the severing of connections with Moscow in France and Czechoslovakia .Pokivailova, p.46-47 Consequently, the Executive Committee of the Comintern called on Romanian Communists to infiltrate the National Renaissance Front (FRN), the newly-created sole legal party of Carol's dictatorship, and attempt to attract members of its structures to the revolutionary cause.Pokivailova, p.48 Until 1944, the group active inside Romania became split between the "''prison faction''" (detainees who looked to Gheorghiu-Dej as their leader) and the one around , David Fabian , Ecaterina Arbore , Imre Aladar , Elena Filipescu , Dumitru Grofu , Ion Dic Dicescu , Eugen Rozvan , Marcel Pauker , Alexander Stefanski , Timotei Marin , and Elek Köblös .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii..'', p.42-43; Frunză, p.90-91, 151, 215; Pokivailova, p.45 It was to be Ana Pauker 's mission to take over and reshape the surviving structure.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.43, 52, 171-172; Frunză, p.103-104, 149-154, 215 PCdR: World War II Main article: Romania During World War II In 1940, Romania had to cede Bessarabia and (as well as other Comintern officials) on charges of " Trotskyism ",Pokivailova, p.48 and, since the FRN had crumbled, several low-ranking party officials actually began collaborating with the new regime.Pokivailova, p.48 At around the same time, a small section of the exterior wing remained active in France, where it eventually joined the Resistance to German Occupation — it included Gheorghe Gaston Marin and the '' Francs-tireurs ''' Olga Bancic .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.52; Frunză, p.103, 402 As Romania came under the rule of , it began talks with the National Peasants ' and the National Liberal parties. At the time, virtually all the interior leadership was imprisoned at various locations (most of them Interned near Târgu Jiu ).Frunză, p.122-123, 138 In June 1943, after troops were suffering major defeats on the Eastern Front , the PCdR proposed that all parties form a ''Blocul Naţional Democrat'' ("National Democratic Bloc"), in order to arrange for Romania to withdraw from its alliance with Nazi Germany.Frunză, p.123 The ensuing talks were prolonged by various factors, most notably by the opposition of the National Peasants' Party leader Iuliu Maniu , who, alarmed by Soviet successes, was trying to reach a satisfactory compromise with the Western Allies (and, together with the National Liberals' leader Dinu Brătianu , continued to back negotiations initiated by Antonescu and Barbu Ştirbey with the United States and the United Kingdom ).Frunză, p.123-125; 130-131 In early 1944, as the , who was still general secretary, was deposed by with Soviet approval by a the rival "''prison faction''" (at the time, it was headed by former inmates of the prison in Caransebeş ); replaced with the Troika formed by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej , Constantin Pîrvulescu , and Iosif Rangheţ , Foriş was discreetly assassinated in 1946.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.49-50, 62; "Comunismul şi cel care a trăit Iluzia"; Frunză, p.400-402 Several assessments view Foriş' dismissal as the complete rupture in historical continuity between the PCdR established in 1921 and what became the ruling party of Communist Romania .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.50; Frunză, p.213, 218-221, 402 greet Romania's new ally, the Red Army , on August 31 , 1944 ]] On August 23, 1944, King Michael, a number of Romanian Armed Forces officers, and armed Communist-led civilians supported by the National Democratic Bloc arrested dictator Ion Antonescu into a safe and seized control of the government (''see King Michael Coup '').Frunză, p.128-137 King Michael then proclaimed the old 1923 Constitution in force, ordered the Romanian Army to enter a Ceasefire with the Red Army on the Moldavia n front, and withdrew Romania from the Axis.Frunză, p.126-129 Later party discourse tended to dismiss the importance of both the Soviet offensive and the dialogue with other forces (and eventually described the coup as a revolt with large popular support).Frunză, p.130-145 The King named General Constantin Sănătescu as Prime Minister of a Coalition Government which was dominated by the National Peasants' Party and National Liberal Party, but included Pătrăşcanu as Minister of Justice - the first Communist to hold high office in Romania. The Red Army entered Bucharest on August 31, and thereafter played a crucial role in supporting the Communist Party's rise to power as the Soviet military command virtually ruled the city and the country (''see Soviet Occupation Of Romania '').Frunză, p.171, 178-190 PCdR: in opposition to Sănătescu and Rădescu After having been underground for two decades, the Communists enjoyed little popular support at first, compared to the other opposition parties (however, the decrease in popularity of the National Liberals was reflected in the forming of a splinter-group around Gheorghe Tătărescu , the National Liberal Party-Tătărescu , who later entered an alliance with the Communist Party). Soon after August 23, the Communists also engaged in an increasingly violent campaign against Romania's main political group of the times, the National Peasants' Party, and its leaders Iuliu Maniu and Ion Mihalache . The conflict's first stage was centered on Communist allegations that Maniu had encouraged violence against the Hungarian Community in newly-recovered Northern Transylvania Frunză, p.163-170 — at a time when the region's status was being assessed by the Paris Peace Conference . The Communist Party, engaged in a massive recruitment campaign,Frunză, p.201-212; according to Rangheţ: "After 3 months of our party's legal existence, in October, we had almost 5-6,000 party members. What is this to say? That we expanded the Cadre s, party members, by only very, very little, if we are to keep in mind the present legal situation, if we keep in mind that, through our party's work, thousands, tens and hundreds of thousands workers were rallied. [... During this time, when our party only had 5-6,000 party members, we held large, huge protests against the [daily] realities in our country, in Bucharest as well as throughout the land..." (Rangheţ, April 25-27, 1945, in Colt) was able to attract ethnic Romanians in large numbers — workers and intellectuals alike, as well as former members of the Fascist Iron Guard .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.297; Frunză, p.208 By 1947, it grew to around 710,000 members.Barbu, p.190 Although the PCR was still highly disorganized and factionalized,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.51-52; Deletant & Ionescu, p.4-5; Frunză, p.218-219 it benefited from Soviet backing (including that of Vladislav Petrovich Vinogradov and other Soviet appointees to the Allied Commission ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.45, 59-61 After 1944, it was leading a Paramilitary wing, the Patriotic Defense (''Apărarea Patriotică'', disbanded in 1948),Frunză, p.176 and a cultural society, the Romanian Society For Friendship With The Soviet Union .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.106-148 On PCdR initiative, the National Democratic Bloc was dissolved on October 8, 1944; instead, the Communists, Social Democrats, the Ploughmen's Front , Mihai Ralea 's Socialist Peasants' Party (which was absorbed by the former in November),Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.154 the Hungarian People's Union (MADOSZ), and Mitiţă Constantinescu 's Union Of Patriots formed ''Frontul Naţional Democrat'' (the "National Democratic Front", FND) which, campaigned against the government, demanding the appointment of more Communist officials and sympathizers, while claiming Democratic legitimacy and alleging that Sănătescu had dictatorial ambitions.Barbu, p.187-189; Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.55-56; Frunză, p.173-174, 220-222, 237-238, 254-255 The FND was soon joined by the Liberal group around Tătărescu, Nicolae L. Lupu 's ''Democratic Peasants' Party'' (the latter claimed the legacy from the defunct Peasants' Party ), and Anton Alexandrescu 's faction (separated from the National Peasants' Party ).Frunză, p.186-190 Sănătescu resigned in November, but was persuaded by King Michael to form a second government which collapsed within weeks. General Nicolae Rădescu was asked to form a government and appointed Teohari Georgescu to the Ministry Of The Interior , which allowed for the introduction of Communists into the security forces.Barbu, p.187-188; Frunză, p.174-177 The Communist Party subsequently launched a campaign against the Rădescu government, culminating in a February 13 , 1945 demonstration outside the Royal Palace , and followed a week later by street fighting between Georgescu's Communist forces and supporters of the National Peasants' Party in Bucharest.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.56; Frunză, p.180-181 In a period of escalating chaos, Rădescu called for elections. The Soviet deputy foreign minister Andrey Vyshinsky went to Bucharest to demand to the monarch that he appoint Communist sympathizer Petru Groza as Prime Minister, offering that Romania would be given sovereignty over Transylvania if he agreed, and intimating a Soviet takeover of the country if he did not.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.157; Frunză, p.180-184 King Michael, under pressure from Soviet troops who were disarming the Romanian military and occupying key installations,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.156-157; Frunză, p.181-182 agreed and dismissed Rădescu, who fled the country.Frunză, p.183-184 PCdR: First Groza cabinet On March 6, Groza became leader of a Communist-dominated government and named Communists to lead the Romanian Armed Forces as well as the ministries of the Interior (Georgescu), Justice ( Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu ), Communications ( Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej ), Propaganda ( Petre Constantinescu-Iaşi ) and Finance ( Vasile Luca ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.57 The non-Communist ministers came from the Social Democrats (who were falling under the control of the pro-Communists Lothar Rădăceanu and Ştefan Voitec ) and the traditional Ploughmen's Front ally, as well as, nominally, from the National Peasants' and National Liberal parties (followers of Tătărescu and Alexandrescu's dissident wings).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.93; Frunză, p.187-189 As a result of the Potsdam Conference , where Western Allied governments refused to recognize Groza's administration, King Michael called on Groza to resign. When he refused, the monarch went to his summer home in Sinaia and refused to sign any government decrees or bills (a period colloquially known as ''greva regală'' - "the royal strike").Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.61-64, 159-161 Following Anglo-American mediation, Groza agreed to include politicians from outside his electoral alliance, appointing two secondary figures in their parties (the National Liberal Mihail Romaniceanu and the National Peasants' Emil Haţieganu ) as Ministers Without Portfolio (January 1946).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.63, 159-160 At the time, Groza's party and the PCR came to publicly disagree on several agrarian issues, before the Ploughmen's Front was eventually pressured into supporting Communist tenets.Cioroianu, p.161-162 In the meantime, the first measure taken by the cabinet was a new Land Reform that advertised, among others, an interest into peasant issues and a respect for property (in front of common fears that a Leninist program was about to be adopted).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.58-59; Frunză, p.198-200, 221 Although contrasted by the Communist press with its previous equivalent, the measure was in fact much less relevant — land awarded to individual farmers in 1923 was more than three times the 1945 figures, and all effects were canceled by the 1948-1962 Collectivization .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.58; Frunză, p.200, 221 It was also then that, through Pătrăşcanu and Alexandru Drăghici , the Communists consecrated their control of the legal system — the process included the creation of the Romanian People's Tribunals , charged with investigating War Crime s, and constantly supported by Agitprop in the Communist press.Frunză, p.228-232 During the period, government-backed Communists used various means to exercising influence over the vast majority of the press, and began infiltrating or competing with independent cultural forums.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.77-93, 106-148; Frunză, p.240-258 Economic dominance, partly responding to Soviet requirements, was first effected through the SovRoms (created in the summer of 1945), directing the bulk of Romanian trade towards the Soviet Union.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.67-71, 372-373; Frunză, p.381 PCR: 1945 restructuring and second Groza cabinet Main article: Romanian General Election, 1946 The Communist Party held its first open conference (October 1945, at the position, Ana Pauker , Teohari Georgescu and Vasile Luca became the other main leaders.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.62, 91-93, 174-176, 194-195; Frunză, p.219-220 The post-1945 constant growth in membership, by far the highest of all Eastern Bloc countries,Barbu, p.190-191 was to provide a base of support for Gheorghiu-Dej. The conference also saw the first mention of the PCdR as the Romanian Communist Party (PCR), the new name being used as a Propaganda tool suggesting a closer connection with the National Interest .Frunză, p.220 Party control over the security forces was successfully used on November 8 , 1945 , when the Bucharest populace gathered in front of the Royal Palace to express solidarity with King Michael, who was still refusing to sign his name to new legislation, on the occasion of his Name Day .Frunză, p.233 Demonstrators were faced with gunshots; around 10 people were killed, and many wounded.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.62; Frunză, p.233 The official account, according to which the Groza government responded to a coup attempt,Frunză, p.234 was dismissed in many recent researches.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.64-66; Frunză, p.234-239 The PCR and its allies won the Romanian Elections Of November 19 , although there is evidence of widespread Electoral Fraud .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.64-66; Frunză, p.287-292 The following months were dedicated to confronting the National Peasants' Party , which was annihilated after the Tămădău Affair and Show Trial of its entire leadership.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.95-96; Frunză, p.287-308 On December 30 , 1947 , the Communist Party's power was consolidated when King Michael was forced to Abdicate and a " People's Republic ", firmly aligned with the Soviet Union, was proclaimed.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.97-101 PMR: creation In February 1948, the Communists ended a long process of infiltrating the and the Hungarian People's Union dissolved themselves in 1953).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.292; Frunză, p.355-357 A new series of economic changes followed: the origin held 64% of party offices and 40% of higher government posts, while results of the recruitment efforts remained below official expectations.US Library of Congress: "The Communist Party" PMR: internal purges During the period, the central scene of the PMR was occupied by the conflict between the "''Muscovite wing''", the "''prison wing''" led by affiliates.Deletant & Ionescu, p.5 The move against Pauker's group echoed Stalinist purges of Jew s in particular from other Communist Parties in the Eastern Bloc — notably, the Anti-"Cosmopolitan" campaign in which Joseph Stalin targeted Jews in the Soviet Union, and the Prague Trials in Czechoslovakia which removed Jews from leading positions in that country's Communist government.Deletant & Ionescu, p.5-6; Frunză, p.403-407 At the same time, a New Republican Constitution , replacing its 1948 precedent, legislated Stalinist tenets,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.103; Deletant & Ionescu, p.3 and proclaimed that "the people's democratic state is consistently carrying out the policy of enclosing and eliminating Capitalist elements".1952 Constitution, in Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.103-104 Gheorghiu-Dej, who remained an orthodox Stalinist,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.195-196; Tismăneanu, p.19, 22-23 took the position of Premier while moving Petru Groza to the Presidency Of The People's Republic . Executive and PMR leaderships remained in Gheorghiu-Dej's charge until his death in 1965 (with the exception of 1954-1955, when his office of PMR leader was taken over by Gheorghe Apostol ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.204 From the moment it came to power and until Stalin's death, as the Cold War erupted, the PMR endorsed Soviet requirements for the Eastern Bloc . Aligning the country with the Cominform , it officially condemned Josip Broz Tito 's Independent Actions in Yugoslavia ; Tito was routinely attacked by the official press, and the Romanian-Yugoslav Danube border became the scene of massive Agitprop displays (''see Tito-Stalin Split and Informbiro '').Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.197-198 PMR: Gheorghiu-Dej and de-Stalinization Uncomfortable and possibly threatened by the reformist measures adopted by Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev , Gheorghiu-Dej began to steer Romania towards a more "independent" path while remaining within the Soviet orbit during the late 1950s . Following the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party Of The Soviet Union , in which Khurshchev initiated De-Stalinization , Gheorghiu-Dej issued Propaganda accusing Pauker, Luca and Georgescu of having been an arch-Stalinists responsible for the party's excesses in the late 1940s and early 1950s (notably, in regard to collectivization) — despite the fact that they had occasionally opposed a number of radical measures advocated by the General Secretary.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.76, 181-182, 206; Frunză, p.393-394 After that purge, Gheorghiu-Dej had begun promoting PMR activists who were perceived as more loyal to his own political views; among them were Nicolae Ceauşescu ,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.391-394; Deletant & Ionescu, p.7, 20-21; Tismăneanu, p.12, 27-31 Gheorghe Stoica , Ghizela Vass ,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.201 Grigore Preoteasa ,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.210-211 Alexandru Bârlădeanu ,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.207, 375; Frunză, p.437 Ion Gheorghe Maurer , Gheorghe Gaston Marin , Paul Niculescu-Mizil , and Gheorghe Rădulescu ;Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.375; Frunză, p.437 in parallel, citing Khrushchevite precedents, the PMR briefly reorganized its leadership on a plural basis (1954-1955),Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.204; Deletant & Ionescu, p.7; Tismăneanu, p.10-12 while Gheorghiu-Dej reshaped party doctrine to include ambiguous messages about Stalin's legacy (insisting on the defunct Soviet's leader contribution to Marxist thought, official documents also deplored his Personality Cult and encouraged Stalinists to Self-criticism ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.206, 217-218; Deletant & Ionescu, p.7-8, 9; Frunză, p.424-425; Tismăneanu, p.9, 16 In this context, the PMR soon dismissed all the relevant consequences of the Twentieth Soviet Congress, and Gheorghiu-Dej even argued that De-Stalinization had been imposed by his team right after 1952.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.206, 217; Deletant & Ionescu, p.8, 9; Frunză, p.430-434; Tismăneanu, p.15-16, 18-19 At a party meeting in March 1956, two members of the Politburo who were supporters of Khruschevite reforms, Miron Constantinescu and Iosif Chişinevschi , criticized Gheorghiu-Dej's leadership and identified him with Romanian Stalinism.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.136, 206-207; Deletant & Ionescu, p.8-9; Frunză, p.425; Tismăneanu, p.11-12, 16-19, 24-26 They were purged in 1957, themselves accused of being Stalinists and of having been plotting with Pauker.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.136, 208; Tismăneanu, p.22, 23-24, 27 Through Ceauşescu's voice, Gheorghiu-Dej also marginalized another group of old members of the PMR, associated with Constantin Doncea (June 1958).Tismăneanu, p.29-30 On the outside too, the PMR, leading a country that had joined the in response to the Revolution Of 1956 , after which Imre Nagy and other dissident Hungarian leaders were imprisoned on Romanian soil.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.198-200, 207; Deletant & Ionescu, p.9-13; Frunză, p.426-428-434; Tismăneanu, p.19-23 The Hungarian rebellion also sparked student protests in such places as Bucharest, Timişoara , Oradea , Cluj and Iaşi , which contributed to unease inside the PMR and resulted in a wave of arrests.Deletant & Ionescu, p.10-11, 34; Tismăneanu, p.21, 31 While refusing to allow dissemination of Soviet literature exposing Stalinism (writers such as Ilya Ehrenburg and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn ), Romanian leaders took active part in the campaign against Boris Pasternak .Frunză, p.429 Despite Stalin's death, the massive police apparatus headed by the , Sighet , Gherla , Aiud , Piteşti , and Râmnicu Sărat ; another method of punishment was Deportation To The Inhospitable Bărăgan Plain .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.300-319; Frunză, p.394-399 PMR: Gheorghiu-Dej and the "national path" Nationalism penetrated official discourse, largely owing to Gheorghiu-Dej's call for economic independence and distancing from the Comecon .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.212-217, 219, 220, 372-376; Frunză, p.440-444 Moves to withdraw the country from Soviet overseeing were taken in quick succession after 1953. Khrushchev allowed Constantinescu to dissolve the SovRoms in 1954,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.208 followed by the closing of Romanian-Soviet cultural ventures such as Editura Cartea Rusă at the end of the decade.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.218-219, 220; Deletant & Ionescu, p.19; Frunză, p.456-457 Industrialization along the PMR's own directives highlighted Romanian independence — one of its consequences was the massive Steel -producing industrial complex in Galaţi , which, being dependent on imports of Iron from overseas, was for long a major strain on Romanian economy.Frunză, p.442 In 1957, Gheorghiu-Dej and Emil Bodnăraş persuaded the Soviets to withdraw their Remaining Troops from Romanian soil.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.345-352; Deletant & Ionescu, p.13-15 As early as 1956, Romania's political apparatus reconciled with Josip Broz Tito , which led to a series of common economic projects (culminating in the Đerdap venture).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.214; Frunză, p.442, 445, 449-450 An drastic divergence in ideological outlooks manifested itself only after autumn 1961, when the PMR's leadership felt threatened by the Soviet Union's will to impose the condemnation of Stalinism as the standard in communist states.Tismăneanu, p.37-38, 47-48 Following the Sino-Soviet Split of the late 1950s and the Soviet-Albanian Split in 1961, Romania initially gave full support to the Khrushchev's stance,Tismăneanu, p.34-36 but maintained exceptionally good relations with both the People's Republic Of China Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.215, 218; Frunză, p.437, 449, 452-453; Tismăneanu, p.14-15, 43-44, 50 and Communist Albania .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.215; Frunză, p.437, 449; Tismăneanu, p.14-15, 50 Romanian media was alone among Warsaw Pact countries to report Chinese criticism of the Soviet leadership from its source;Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.215; Frunză, p.438 in return, Maoist officials complimented Romanian nationalism by supporting the view that Bessarabia had been a traditional victim of Russian Imperialism .Frunză, p.452-453 The change in policies was to become obvious in 1964, when the Communist regime offered a stiff response to the '''', 1964, in Iordachi I.2; in Tismăneanu, p.49 During late 1948, the PMR's leadership clashed with new Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev over the issue of KGB advisers still present in the Securitate , and eventually managed to have these recalled, making Romania the Eastern bloc first country to have accomplished this.Deletant & Ionescu, p.18-19 These actions gave Romania greater freedom in pursuing the program which Gheorghiu-Dej had been committed to since 1954, one allowing Romania to defy reforms in the Eastern Bloc and to maintain a largely Stalinist course.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.216-217, 220-221; Deletant & Ionescu, p.15-19; Frunză, p.445-449, 458-461; Tismăneanu, p.32-34 It has also been argued that Romania's emancipation was, in effect, limited to economic relations and military cooperation, being as such dependent on a relatively tolerant mood inside the Soviet Union.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.320-325 Nevertheless, the PMR's nationalism made it increasingly popular with Romanian Intellectual s, and the last stage of the Gheorghiu-Dej regime was popularly identified with Liberalization .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.221-223, 275-276; Frunză, p.458 PCR: Ceauşescu's rise Gheorghiu-Dej died in March 1965 and was succeeded by a collective leadership made up of of a large number of Communist officials (including, among others, Ştefan Foriş , Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu , Miron Constantinescu , Vasile Luca , and Romanian victims of the Soviet Great Purge ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.398-399; "Comunismul şi cel care a trăit Iluzia"; Deletant & Ionescu, p.25; Frunză, p.472-474 This measure was instrumental in consolidating the new leadership while further increasing its distance from Gheorghiu-Dej's political legacy.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.397-400; Frunză, p.473-474 In 1965, Ceauşescu declared that Romania was no longer a People's Democracy but a for the Romanian population as a whole, which was similar to developments in most other Eastern bloc countries.Deletant & Ionescu, p.25-26 A seminal event occurred in August 1968, when Ceauşescu highlighted his anti-Soviet discourse by vocally opposing the leader Josip Broz Tito — negotiations did not yield a clear result.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.409 Although military intervention in Romania was reportedly taken into consideration by the Soviets,Deletant & Ionescu, p.27 there is indication that Leonid Brezhnev had himself ruled out Romanian participation in Warsaw Pact maneuvers,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.409 and continued to rely on Ceauşescu's support for other common goals.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.409; Frunză, p.516-518 While it appears that Romanian leaders genuinely approved of reforms undertaken by Alexander Dubček ,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.405-406 Ceauşescu's gesture also served to consolidate his image as a national and independent communist leader.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.404, 412-415; Deletant & Ionescu, p.22; Frunză, p.513-514; Iordachi, II.1 One year before the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Ceauşescu opened up diplomatic ties with West Germany , and refused to break links with Israel following the Six-Day War .Deletant & Ionescu, p.22 Starting with the much-publicized visit by France 's Charles De Gaulle (May 1968),Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.404-405; "Comunismul şi cel care a trăit Iluzia" Romania was the recipient of Western World support going well into the 1970s (significant visits were payed by United States Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford , in 1969 and 1975 respectively, while Ceauşescu was frequently received in Western capitals).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.412-414; "Comunismul şi cel care a trăit Iluzia"; Deletant & Ionescu, p.29, 46; Iordachi, II.1 PCR: Ceauşescu's supremacy Ceauşescu developed a Cult Of Personality around himself and his wife Elena (herself promoted to high offices)Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.79-80, 429, 431, 489-490; Deletant & Ionescu, p.28-29 after visiting North Korea and noting the parallel developed by Kim Il-sung , while incorporating in it several aspects of past Authoritarian regimes in Romania (''see Conducător '').Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.416, 424, 434-442, 488-492; "Comunismul şi cel care a trăit Iluzia" During the early 1970s, while curbing Liberalization , he launched his own version of China 's Cultural Revolution , announced by the '' July Theses ''.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.489; Deletant & Ionescu, p.30-31 In effect, measures to concentrate power in Ceauşescu's hands were taken as early as 1967, when the general secretary became the ultimate authority on foreign policy.Frunză, p.476 At the time, a new political body was instituted under the name of ''Front of Socialist Unity'' (eventually renamed ''Front of Socialist Unity and Democracy''); tightly controlled by party activists, it was meant to affiliate virtually all non-party members, and thus consolidate the impression that the entire population was backing Ceauşescu's policies.Frunză, p.482-483 As a result of these new policies, the in respect to Minorities claimed interest in obtaining allegiance from both Hungarians and Germans , and set up separate wokers' councils for both communities.Deletant & Ionescu, p.23-24; Iordachi, I.3 Members of the upper echelons of the party who objected to Ceauşescu's stance were accused of supporting Soviet policies; they included Alexandru Bârlădeanu , who criticized the heavy loans contracted in support of Industrialization policies.Frunză, p.476, 510-511 In time, the new leader distanced himself from Maurer and Corneliu Mănescu , while his career profited from the deaths of Stoica (who committed suicide) and Sălăjan (who died while undergoing surgery).Deletant & Ionescu, p.31; Frunză, p.472, 475, 476-478, 479-480, 483, 511 Instead, he came to rely on a new grouping of activists, one which included Manea Mănescu .Deletant & Ionescu, p.30; Frunză, p.483 At the XIth Party Congress in 1974, , following a ceremonial during which he was handed a Sceptre ;Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.489; Deletant & Ionescu, p.31; Frunză, p.483-484 this was the first in a succession of titles (they also included "supreme commander of the Romanian Army ", "honorary president of the Romanian Academy ", and "first among the country's miners").Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.489-490 Progressively after 1967, the large bureaucratic structure of the PCR again replicated and interfered with state administration and economic policies.US Library of Congress: "The Communist Party"; Deletant & Ionescu, p.26 The President himself became noted for frequent visits on location at various enterprises, where he would dispense directives, for which the termed ''indicaţii preţioase'' ("valuable advice") was coined by official propaganda.Deletant & Ionescu, p.32 PCR: Late 1970s crisis The renewed industrialization, which based itself an both a dogmatic understanding of Marxian Economics and a series of Autarkic goals,Deletant & Ionescu, p.26, 32; Frunză, p.510-512 brought major economic problems to Romania, beginning with the effects of the 1973 Oil Crisis , and worsened by the 1979 Energy Crisis .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.467; Deletant & Ionescu, p.32-33 The profound neglect of Service s and decline in Quality Of Life , first manifested when much of the budget was diverted to support an over-sized industry,Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.467-468; Deletant & Ionescu, p.33-34; Frunză, p.512 was made more drastic by the political decision to pay in full the country's External Debt Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.468-469; Frunză, p.512 (in 1983, this was set at 10 billion United States Dollar s, of which 4.5 was accumulated Interest ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.468; Deletant & Ionescu, p.33 By March 1989, the debt had been paid in full.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.471 Two other programs initiated under Ceauşescu had massive consequences on social life. One of them was the plan, announced as early as 1965, to " Systemize Rural Areas ", which was meant to Urbanize Romania at a fast pace (of over 13,000 Communes , the country was supposed to be left with 6,000);Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.469; Deletant & Ionescu, p.47-49 it also brought massive changes for the cities — especially Bucharest , where, following the 1977 Earthquake and successive demolitions, new architectural guidelines were imposed (''see Ceauşima '').Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.470 By 1966, Abortion was outlawed, and, progressively after that, measures were endorsed to artificially increase the Birth Rate (including special taxes for childless couples).Deletant & Ionescu, p.42-44 Another measure, going hand in hand with economic ones, allowed ethnic Germans a chance to leave Romania and settle in West Germany as '' Auslandsdeutsche '', in return for payments from the latter countryCioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.471-474; Deletant & Ionescu, p.24 (overall, around 200,000 Germans left, most of them Transylvanian Saxons and Banat Swabians ).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.473; Deletant & Ionescu, p.24 Although Romania adhered to the Organization For Security And Co-operation In Europe (1973) and signed the 1975 Helsinki Final Act , Ceauşescu also intensified political repression in the country (beginning in 1971).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.486; Frunză, p.516, 518 This took a drastic turn in 1977, when, confronted with Paul Goma 's movement in support for '' Charter 77 '', the regime expelled him and others from the country.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.478; Frunză, p.524 A more serious disobedience occurred in August of the same year, when Jiu Valley miners went on Strike , briefly took hold of Premier Ilie Verdeţ , and, despite having reached an agreement with the government, were repressed and some of them expelled (''see Jiu Valley Miners' Strike Of 1977 '').Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.478-479; Frunză, p.525-526 A newly-created and independent Trade Union , SLOMR , was crushed and its leaders arrested on various charges in 1979.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.479; Deletant & Ionescu, p.34-35; Frunză, p.526 Progressively during the period, the Securitate relied on Involuntary Commitment to Psychiatric Hospital s as a means to punish Dissidence .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.479; Deletant & Ionescu, p.35 PCR: 1980s in central under construction in 1986]] A major act of discontent occurred inside the party during its XIIth Congress in late November 1979, when PCR veteran Constantin Pîrvulescu spoke out against Ceauşescu's policy of discouraging discussions and relying on obedient Cadre s (he was subsequently heckled, evicted from the Congress hall, and isolated).Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.487-488; Frunză, p.486-489 In 1983, Radu Filipescu , an engineer working in Bucharest, was imprisoned after distributing 20,000 leaflets which called for a popular rally against the regime,Deletant & Ionescu, p.38; Frunză, p.525-525 while a protests of miners in Maramureş County against wage cuts was broken up by Securitate forces; three years layer strike organized by Romanian and Hungarian industrial workers in Turda and Cluj-Napoca met with the same result.Deletant & Ionescu, p.35 Also in 1983, fearing the multiplication of '' Samizdat '' documents, Minister Of The Interior George Homoştean ordered all citizens to hand down their Typewriter s to the authorities.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.479; Deletant & Ionescu, p.42-43 This coincided with a noted popular rise in support for outspoken dissidents who were kept under house arrest, among whom were Doina Cornea and Mihai Botez .Deletant & Ionescu, p.37-39 By 1983, membership of the PCR had risen to 3.3 million,Frunză, p.482 and, in 1989, to 3.7-3.8 millionUS Library of Congress: "The Communist Party"; Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.414 — meaning that, in the end, over 20% of Romanian adults were party members,US Library of Congress: "The Communist Party" making the PCR the largest communist group of the .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.415, 426-432; Frunză, p.521 At the same time, the ideological viewpoint was changed, with the party no longer seen as the '' and '' Glasnost '' developed in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Gorbachev , Romania revived Stalinist policies in both its internal policies and its relation to the outside.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.491-494; Deletant & Ionescu, p.32, 44-46; Frunză, p.520; Iordachi, II.3 As recorded in 1984, 90% of the PCR members were , leader of the PCR in Covasna County .Frunză, p.523 After 1980, the Nationalist ideology adopted by the PCR progressively targeted the Hungarian community as a whole, based on suspicions of its allegiance to Hungary , whose policies had become diametrically opposed to the methods of Romanian leaders (''see Goulash Communism '').Iordachi, I.3, III Especially during the 1980s, clientelism was further enhanced by a new policy, ''rotaţia cadrelor'' ("cadre rotation" or "reshuffling"), placing strain on low-level officials to seek the protection of higher placed ones as a means to preserve their position or to promote.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.426-431; Deletant & Ionescu, p.30; Frunză, p.485-486 This effectively prompted activists who did not approve of the change in tone to retire, while others — Virgil Trofin , Ion Iliescu and Paul Niculescu-Mizil among them — were officially dispatched to low-ranking positions or otherwise marginalized.Frunză, p.485-486 In June 1988, the leadership of the Political Executive Committee was reduced from 15 to 7 members, including Nicolae Ceauşescu and his wife.US Library of Congress: "The Communist Party" PCR: Downfall Main article: Romanian Revolution Of 1989 with the communist symbols cut out, as used by 1989 Revolutionaries ]] Announced by a February 1987 protest of workers and students in Iaşi ,Deletant & Ionescu, p.35-36 the final crisis of the PCR and its regime began in the autumn, when industrial employees in Braşov called a strike that immediately drew echoes with the city's population (''see Braşov Rebellion '').Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.486-487; Deletant & Ionescu, p.36 In December, authorities convened a public Kangaroo Trial of the movement's leaders, and handed out sentences of imprisonment and internal exile.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.486-487; Deletant & Ionescu, p.36 Inaugurated by Silviu Brucan 's public criticism of the Braşov repression, and inspired by the impact of changes in other Eastern Bloc countries, protests of marginalized PCR activists became notorious after March 1989, when Brucan and Pîrvulescu, together with Gheorghe Apostol , Alexandru Bârlădeanu , Grigore Răceanu and Corneliu Mănescu , sent Ceauşescu their so-called ''Letter of the Six'', publicized over Radio Free Europe .Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.487-488; Deletant & Ionescu, p.37, 40-41 At around the same time, Systematization provoked an international response, as Romania was subjected to a resolution of the United Nations Commission On Human Rights , which called for an inquiry into the state of ethnic minorities and the rural population; the political isolation experienced by Communist Romania was highlighted by the fact that Hungary endorsed the report,Deletant & Ionescu, p.39-40; Iordachi, III.4 while all other Eastern bloc countries abstained.Deletant & Ionescu, p.39-40 This followed more than a decade of deteriorating relations between the PCR and the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party .Iordachi, III Eventually, both Ceauşescu and the party were overthrown in the Romanian Revolution Of December 1989 , begun as a popular rebellion in Timişoara and eventually bringing to power the National Salvation Front , comprising an important number of former PCR members who supported Gorbachev's vision.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.488, 493-494 The general secretary was executed together with Elena Ceauşescu, and the PCR disbanded. The spontaneity of the latter move and the rapid pace at which the PCR, one of the largest political parties of its kind, dissolved itself were held by commentators as additional proof that membership provided a highly inaccurate image in respect to actual convictions.Cioroianu, ''Pe umerii...'', p.414 PARTY CONGRESSES GENERAL SECRETARIES SEE ALSO NOTES REFERENCES
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