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The Romani people (as a Noun , singular '''Rom''', plural '''Roma'''; sometimes ''Rrom'', ''Rroma'') or '''Romanies''' are an Ethnic Group living in many communities all over the world. The Roma are among the best known ethnic groups that appear in literature and folklore, and are often referred to as '''Gypsies''' or '''Gipsies''', a term that is nowadays generally considered pejorative and is based on a mistaken belief of an origin in Egypt .1 POPULATION Worldwide there is an estimated population of at least 15 million RomaEstimated population from adding the sourced population numbers from the article Romani People By Country . Note that some countries with Romani populations are not included, where reliable sources could not be found, and that many of the sources are outdated or supply only partial information about Romani groups in a certain country.. The official number of Romani people is disputed in many countries. Because many Roma often refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for fear of discrimination3, unofficial estimates are undertaken in efforts to reveal their true numbers. The largest population of Roma is found on the Balkan Peninsula ; significant numbers also live in the Americas , the former Soviet Union , Western Europe , the Middle East, and North Africa. The Roma recognize divisions among themselves based in part on territorial, cultural and Dialect al differences. Some authorities recognize five main groups: # Kalderash are the most numerous, traditionally Coppersmiths , from the Balkans, many of whom migrated to central Europe and North America ; # Gitanos (also called ''Calé'') mostly in the Iberian Peninsula , North Africa, and southern France ; associated with entertainment; # Sinti mostly in Alsace and other Regions Of France and Germany (Other experts, and Sinti themselves, insist that Sinti are not a subgroup of Roma but rather a separate ethnic group which also had Indian origins and a history of nomadism); # Romnichal (''Rom'nies'') mainly in Britain and North America; and # Erlides (also known as ''Yerlii'' or ''Arli'') settled in southeastern Europe and Turkey . Some groups, like the (Machwaya), Lovari , Churari , Rudari , Boyash , Ludar , Luri , Xoraxai , Ungaritza , Bashaldé , Ursari and Romungro . ORIGINS The Roma are believed to have originated in the Punjab and Rajasthan regions of the Indian Subcontinent . They began their migration to Europe and North Africa via the Iranian Plateau around 1050.5 Linguistic evidence Genetic evidence Further evidence for the Indian origin of the Roma came in the late 1990s when it was discovered that Roma populations carried large frequencies of particular Y Chromosome s (inherited paternally) and Mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that otherwise only exist in populations from South Asia . This is considered unambiguous proof that all Roma are descended from a single founding population, originating from the Indian subcontinent around 40 generations ago, which subsequently split into the subgroups we see today. HISTORY See Also: History of the Romani people in the 15th Century , described by the chronicler as ''getoufte heiden'' ("baptized heathens") and drawn with dark skin and wearing Saracen -style clothing and weapons ( Spiezer Schilling , p. 749).]] Linguistic and genetic evidence indicates the Roma originated from the Indian Subcontinent .9 The cause of the Roma Diaspora is unknown. However, the most probable situation is that the Roma were part of the military in Northern India . When there were repeated raids by Mahmud Of Ghazni and these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire . This occurred between 1000 and 1050 AD. This departure date is assumed because, linguistically speaking, the Romani language is a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA)--it has only two Genders (masculine and feminine). Until around the year 1000, the Indo-Aryan languages, named Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter). By the turn of the 2nd millennium they changed into the NIA phase, losing the neuter gender. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages is proposed to prove that the change occurred in the Subcontinent. It is therefore not considered possible that the Romas' ancestors left there prior to 1000. They then stayed in the Byzantine Empire for several hundred years. However, the Muslim expansion, mainly made by the Seljuk Turks , into the Byzantine Empire recommenced the movement of the Romani people.10 Many historians believe that the Muslim conquerors of northern India took the Roma as Slave s and marched them home over the unforgiving terrain of Central Asia, taking great tolls on the population and thereby giving rise to such designations as the Hindu Kush mountains of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan . Mahmud of Ghazni reportedly took 500,000 prisoners during a Turkish / Persian invasion of Sindh and Punjab . Others suggest the Roma were originally low- Caste Hindus recruited into an army of Mercenaries , granted Warrior Caste status, and sent westward to resist Islamic military expansion. In either case, upon arrival, they became a distinct community. Why the Roma did not return to India, choosing instead to travel west into Europe, is an Enigma , but may relate to military service under the Muslims. Contemporary scholars have suggested that one of the first written references to the Roma, under the term ''"Atsinganoi"'', ( Greek ), dates from the Byzantine era during a time of famine in the 9th century. In 800 AD, Saint Athanasia gave food to "foreigners called the Atsinganoi" near Thrace . Later, in 803 AD, Theophanes The Confessor wrote that Emperor Nikephoros I had the help of the ''"Atsinganoi"'' to put down a riot with their "knowledge of magic". ''"Atsingani"'' was used to refer to itinerant fortune tellers, Ventriloquists and wizards who visited the Emperor Constantine IX in the year 1054.11 The Hagiographical text, ''The Life of St. George the Anchorite,'' mentions that the ''"Atsingani"'' were called on by Constantine to help rid his forests of the wild animals which were killing off his livestock. They are later described as sorcerers and evildoers and accused of trying to poison the Emperor's favorite hound. Around 1360, an independent Romani Fiefdom (called the ''Feudum Acinganorum'') was established in Corfu and became "a settled community and an important and established part of the economy."13 By the 14th century, the Roma had reached the Balkans; by 1424, Germany ; and by the 16th century, Scotland and Sweden . Some Roma migrated from Persia through North Africa, reaching Europe via Spain in the 15th century. The two currents met in France. Roma began immigrating to the United States in colonial times, with small groups in Virginia and French Louisiana . Larger-scale immigration began in the 1860s, with groups of Romnichal from Britain. The largest number immigrated in the early 1900s, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Roma also settled in Latin America . , Bulgaria ]] When the Romani people arrived in Europe, curiosity was soon followed by hostility and Xenophobia . Roma were enslaved for five centuries in Romania until Abolition in 1864. Elsewhere in Europe, they were subject to Ethnic Cleansing , abduction of their children, and Forced Labor . During World War II , the Nazis murdered 200,000 to 800,000 Roma in an attempted Genocide known as the '' Porajmos ''. Like the Jew s, they were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labour and imprisonment in Concentration Camp s. They were often killed on sight, especially by the Einsatzgruppen (essentially mobile killing units) on the Eastern Front. In Communist Eastern Europe, Roma experienced assimilation schemes and restrictions of cultural freedom. The Romani language and Romani Music were banned from public performance in Bulgaria . In Czechoslovakia , they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum," and Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, threats of denying future social welfare payments, misinformation or after administering drugs (Silverman 1995; Helsinki Watch 1991). An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report (December 2005), concluded that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Roma, which "included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community" and that "the problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic, either with improper motivation or illegally, exists" 14, with new revealed cases up until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia . 15 In the early 1990s, Germany deported tens of thousands of Illegal Immigrants to Eastern Europe. Sixty percent of some 100,000 Romanian nationals deported under a 1992 treaty were Roma. In Norway , Roma were forcibly sterilized by the state until 1977. 16 SOCIETY AND CULTURE See Also: Roma society and culture The traditional Roma place a high value on the Extended Family . Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Roma practice of Child Marriage . Roma law establishes that the man’s family must pay a Dower to the bride's parents. Roma (because they produce emissions) as well as the rest of the lower body. Fingernails and toenails must be filed with an emery board, as cutting them with a clipper is Taboo . Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of Menstruating women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure, and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is considered impure for forty days after giving birth. Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. However, in contrast to the practice of Cremating the dead, Roma dead must be buried.17 It is possible that this tradition was adapted from Abrahamic religions after the Roma left the Indian subcontinent. Religion Roma have usually adopted the dominant religion of the host country while often preserving aspects of their particular Belief Systems and indigenous religion and worship. Most Eastern European Roma are Catholic , Orthodox Christian or Muslim . Those in western Europe and the United States are mostly Roman Catholic or Protestant . In Turkey, Egypt, and the southern Balkans, the Roma are split into Christian and Muslim populations. Romani religion has a highly developed sense of morality, taboos, and the supernatural, though it is often denigrated by organized religions. It has been suggested that while still in India the Romani people belonged to the Hindu religion, this theory being supported by the Romani word for "cross", ''trushul'', which is the word which describes Shiva 's Trident ( Trishula ). Since the 1960s, a growing number of Roma have embraced Evangelical movements. Over the past half-century, Roma have become ministers and created their own churches and missionary organizations for the first time.18 In some countries, the majority of Roma now belong to the Romani churches. This change has contributed to a better image of Roma in society. The work they perform is seen as more legitimate, and they have begun to obtain legal permits for commercial activities. Evangelical Romani churches exist today in every country where Roma are settled. The movement is particularly strong in France and Spain; there are more than one thousand Romani churches (known as "Filadelfia") in Spain, with almost one hundred in Madrid alone. In Germany, the most numerous group is that of Polish Roma, having their main church in Mannheim . Other important and numerous Romani assemblies exist in Los Angeles , California ; Houston , Texas ; Buenos Aires , Argentina ; and Mexico City . Some groups in Romania and Chile have joined the Seventh-day Adventist Church . In the Balkans, the Roma of Republic Of Macedonia , Kosovo (southern province of Serbia ) and Albania have been particularly active in Islamic mystical brotherhoods ( Sufism ). Muslim Roma immigrants to western Europe and America have brought these traditions with them. Music See Also: Roma music Roma music plays an important role in Eastern European cultures such as Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro , Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Russia , and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Roma musicians have influenced European Classical Composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms . The '' Lăutari '' who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Roma. Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the ''lăutar'' tradition are Taraful Haiducilor . Bulgaria's popular "wedding music," too, is almost exclusively performed by Roma musicians such as Ivo Papasov , a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre. Many famous Classical Music ians, such as the Hungarian Pianist Georges Cziffra , are Roma, as are many prominent performers of Manele . Zdob şi Zdub , one of the most prominent Rock Band s in Moldova , although not Roma themselves, draw heavily on Roma music, as do Spitalul De Urgenţă in Romania, Goran Bregović in Serbia, Darko Rundek in Croatia, and Beirut in the United States. Another tradition of Roma music is the genre of the gypsy Brass Band , with such notable practitioners as Boban Marković of Serbia, and the brass ''lăutari'' groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and Fanfare Din Cozmesti of Romania. The distinctive sound of Roma music has also strongly influenced Bolero , Jazz , and Flamenco (especially '' Cante Jondo '') in Europe. European-style Gypsy Jazz is still widely practised among the original creators (the Roma People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt . The Roma of Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the Darbuka and Gırnata . A number nation wide best seller performers are said to be of Romani origin. LANGUAGE See Also: Romani language There are independent groups currently working toward Standardizing The Language , including groups in Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, the USA, and Sweden. Romani is not currently spoken in India. ETYMOLOGY Most Roma refer to themselves as ''rom'' or ''rrom'', depending on the dialect. The word means "husband", ''romni''/''rromni'' meaning "wife", while the unmarried are named ''čhavo'' ("boy") ( IPA pronunciation: ) or ''čhej'' ("girl"). There are no historical proofs to clarify the etymology of these words. The word ''Rom'' (plural ''Roma'') is a it is used only the feminine singular form, but they may also appear in the other forms. "Romanes" is created by attaching the suffix ''-es'', usually employed for adverbs. 21 The use of the word ''Romanes'' in English as a noun is incorrect22. The English term ''Gypsy'' (or ''Gipsy'') originates from the Greek word ''Αιγύπτοι'' (Aigyptoi), modern Greek '''γύφτοι''' (''gyphtoi''), in the erroneous belief that the Roma originated in Egypt , and were exiled as punishment for allegedly harboring the Infant Jesus .Fraser 1992. If used, this Exonym should also be written with capital letter, to show that it is about an Ethnic Group . 23 As described in Victor Hugo 's novel '' The Hunchback Of Notre Dame '', the medieval French referred to the Rom as "egyptiens". This Ethnonym is not used by the Roma to describe themselves, and is often considered pejorative (as is the term "gyp", meaning "to cheat", a reference to the suspicion the Roma engendered). However, the use of "Gypsy" in English is now so pervasive that many Roma organizations use the word ''Gypsy'' in their own names. In North America , the word "Gypsy" is commonly used as a reference to lifestyle or fashion, and not to the Roma ethnicity. The Spanish term '' Gitano '' and the French term ''gitan'' may have the same origin.24 In most of :''τσιγγάνοι'') are interchangeable and both are used when referring to the Roma. Because many Roma living in France had come via Bohemia , they were also referred to as ''Bohémiens.'' This would later be adapted to describe the impoverished artistic lifestyle of Bohemianism . Outside Europe, Roma are referred to by more varied names, such as ''Kowli'' (''کولی'') in Iran ; ''Lambani'', ''Labana'' ''Lambadi'', ''Rabari'' or ''Banjara'' in India ; ''Ghajar'' (''غجر'') or ''Nawar'' (''نور''') in Arabic ; and ''tzo'anim'' ''צוענים'' in Hebrew (after an ancient city in Egypt and the biblical verb ''צענ'' , roaming). There is no connection between the name ''Roma'' (ethnicity) and the city of Rome, Ancient Rome , Romania, the Romanian People or the Romanian Language . PERSECUTIONS See Also: Antiziganism Historical persecution The first and one of the most enduring persecutions against the Romani people was the enslaving of the Roma who arrived on the territory of the historical Romanian states of Wallachia and Moldavia , which lasted from the 14th century until the second half of the 19th century. Legislation decreed that all the Roma living in these states, as well as any others who would immigrate there, were slaves.28 The arrival of some branches of the Romani people in Western Europe in the 15th century was precipitated by the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans . Although the Roma themselves were refugees from the conflicts in southeastern Europe, they were mistaken by the local population in the West, because of their foreign appearance, as part of the Ottoman invasion (the German Reichstags at Landau and Freiburg in 1496-1498 declared the Roma as spies of the Turks). In Western Europe, this resulted in a violent history of persecution and attempts of ethnic cleansing until the modern era. As time passed, other accusations were added against local Roma (accusations specific to this area, against non-assimilated minorities), like that of bringing the plague, usually sharing their burden together with the local Jews.29 Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside Europe, mostly in the Anglosphere (in 1885 the United States outlawed the entry of the Roma) and also in some Latin America n states (in 1880 Argentina adopted a similar policy). Holocaust See Also: Porajmos Death Camp await instructions.]] The persecution of the Roma reached a peak during World War II in the '' Porajmos '', the genocide perpetrated by the Nazis during the Holocaust . In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws stripped the Romani people living in Nazi Germany of their citizenship, after which they were subjected to violence and imprisonment in Extermination Camp s. The policy was extended in areas occupied by the Nazis during the war, and it was also applied by their allies, notably the Independent State Of Croatia , Romania and Hungary . Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Roma, it is impossible to accurately assess the actual number of victims. Ian Hancock , director of the Program of Romani Studies at The University Of Texas At Austin , proposes a figure of up to a million and a half, while an estimate of between 220,000 and 500,000 was made by the late Sybil Milton, formerly senior historian of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum.Most estimates for numbers of Roma victims of the Holocaust fall between 200,000 and 500,000, although figures ranging between 90,000 and 4 million have been proposed. Lower estimates do not include those killed in all Axis-controlled countries. A detailed study by the late Sybil Milton, formerly senior historian at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum gave a figure of at least a minimum of 220,000, probably higher, possibly closer to 500,000 (cited in Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals, September 11, 2000 ). Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000 in his 2004 article, Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an Overview as published in Stone, D. (ed.) (2004) The Historiography of the Holocaust. Palgrave, Basingstoke and New York. . In Central Europe, the extermination in the Protectorate Of Bohemia And Moravia was so thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became totally extinct. Contemporary issues In the UK , "travellers" (referring to Irish Travellers and New Age Travellers as well as Roma) became a 2005 General Election issue, with the leader of the Conservative Party promising to review the Human Rights Act 1998 . This law, which absorbs the European Convention On Human Rights into UK Primary Legislation , is seen by some to permit the granting of retrospective Planning Permission . Severe population pressures and the paucity of Greenfield sites have led to ''travellers'' purchasing land, and setting up residential settlements almost overnight, thus subverting the planning restrictions imposed on other members of the community. Travellers argued in response that thousands of retrospective planning permissions are granted in Britain in cases involving non-Roma applicants each year and that statistics showed that 90% of planning applications by Roma and travellers were initially refused by Local Council s, compared with a national average of 20% for other applicants, disproving claims of preferential treatment favouring Roma.30 They also argued that the root of the problem was that many traditional stopping-places had been barricaded off and that legislation passed by the previous Conservative government had effectively criminalised their community, for example by removing local authorities’ responsibility to provide sites, thus leaving the travellers with no option but to purchase unregistered new sites themselves.31 Despite the low Birth Rate in the country, Bulgaria's Health Ministry was considering a law aimed at lowering the birth rate of certain Minority Group s, particularly the Roma, due to the high Mortality Rate among Roma families, which are typically large. This was later abandoned due to conflict with EU Law and the Bulgarian constitution.34 |
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