In the United States , the was a period of reform which lasted from the 1890s through the 1920s.
The reformers of the Progressive Era advocated the Efficiency Movement . Progressives assumed that anything old was encrusted with inefficient and useless practices. A scientific study of the problem would enable experts to discover the "one best solution." Progressives strongly opposed waste and corruption, and they tended to assume that opponents were motivated by ignorance or corruption. They sought change in all policies at all levels of society, economy and government. Initially the movement was successful at local level, and then it progressed to state and gradually national. The reformers (and their opponents) were predominantly members of the middle class. Most were well educated White Protestants who lived in the cities. Catholics , Jews and African Americans had their own versions of the Progressive Movement. Noted retractors included George Cardinal Mundelein , Oscar Straus and Booker T. Washington .
Women came to the forefront in the Progressive era and proved their value as social workers. The Progressives pushed for social justice, general equality and public safety, but there were contradictions within the movement, especially regarding race. The Catholics had their own version of the movement which they applied to their schools, colleges, and hospitals.
Almost all major politicians declared their adherence to some progressive measures. In politics the most prominent national figures were Republicans Theodore Roosevelt and Robert LaFollette and Democrats William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson .
Significant changes achieved at the national levels included Prohibition with the 18th Amendment and Women's Suffrage through to the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, both in 1920, as well as the Income Tax with the Sixteenth Amendment and Direct Election Of Senators with the Seventeenth Amendment . Prohibition brought about mobsters and a crime wave and violent street battles over turf, and was repealed.
Muckraker s were journalists who exposed waste, corruption and scandal in the highly influential new medium of national magazines, such as McClure's . Progressives shared a common belief in the ability of science, technology and disinterested expertise to identify all problems and come up with the one best solution.
Progressives moved to enable the citizenry to rule more directly and circumvent political bosses; California , Wisconsin , and Oregon took the lead. California and Oregon established the Initiative , Referendum , and Recall . About 16 states began using Primary Election s. Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets and administrative structures of local governments. In Illinois , Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state government. In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert LaFollette , the Wisconsin Idea , inspired by Charles McCarthy, used the state university as the source of ideas and expertise.
- Buenker, John D., John C. Burnham, and Robert M. Crunden. ''Progressivism'' (1986) short overview
- Buenker, John D. and Joseph Buenker, Eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.'' Sharpe Reference, 2005. xxxii + 1256 pp. in three volumes. ISBN 0-7656-8051-3. 900 articles by 200 scholars
- Buenker, John D. ''Dictionary of the Progressive Era'' (1980)
- Crunden, Robert M. ''Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization, 1889-1920'' (1982)
- Diner, Steven J. ''A Very Different Age: Americans of the Progressive Era'' (1998)
- Paul W. Glad. "Progressives and the Business Culture of the 1920s," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 53, No. 1. (Jun., 1966), pp. 75-89. in JSTOR
- Gould Lewis L. ''America in the Progressive Era, 1890-1914" (2000)
- Gould Lewis L. ed., ''The Progressive Era'' (1974)
- Hays, Samuel P. ''The Response to Industrialism, 1885-1914'' (1957),
- Hofstadter, Richard ''The Age of Reform'' (1954), Pulitzer Prize
- Jensen, Richard. "Democracy, Republicanism and Efficiency: The Values of American Politics, 1885-1930," in Byron Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds, ''Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775-2000'' (U of Kansas Press, 2001) pp 149-180; online version
- Kennedy, David M. ed., ''Progressivism: The Critical Issues'' (1971), readings
- William E. Leuchtenburg, "Progressivism and Imperialism: The Progressive Movement and American Foreign Policy, 1898-1916," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 39, No. 3. (Dec., 1952), pp. 483-504. JSTOR
- Mann, Arthur. ed., ''The Progressive Era'' (1975), readings
- Lasch, Christopher. ''The True and Only Heaven: Progress and its Critics'' (1991)
- McGerr, Michael. ''A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870-1920'' (2003)
- Mowry, George. ''The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900-1912.'' (1954) general survey of era; online
- Noggle, Burl. "The Twenties: A New Historiographical Frontier," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 53, No. 2. (Sep., 1966), pp. 299-314. in JSTOR
- Pease, Otis, ed. ''The Progressive Years: The Spirit and Achievement of American Reform'' (1962), primary documents
- Thelen, David P. "Social Tensions and the Origins of Progressivism," ''Journal of American History'' 56 (1969), 323-341 online at JSTOR
- Wiebe, Robert. ''The Search For Order, 1877-1920'' (1967)
- Beale Howard K. ''Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power.'' (1956).
- Blum, John Morton ''The Republican Roosevelt.'' (1954). Series of essays that examine how TR did politics
- Brands, H.W. ''Theodore Roosevelt'' (2001)
- Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992)
- Coletta, Paolo. ''The Presidency of William Howard Taft'' (1990)
- Cooper, John Milton ''The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt.'' (1983).
- Gould, Lewis L. ''The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt'' (1991)
- Harbaugh, William Henry. ''The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt.'' (1963)
- Harrison, Robert. ''Congress, Progressive Reform, and the New American State'' (2004)
- Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 8-9-10.
- Kolko, Gabriel . "The Triumph of Conservatism" (1963)
- Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972)
- Morris, Edmund ''Theodore Rex''. (2001), biography covers 1901-1909
- Mowry, George E. ''Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement''. (2001)
- Sanders, Elizabeth. ''Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers and the American State, 1877-1917'' (1999)
- Wiebe, Robert H. ''Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the Progressive Movement'' (1968)
- Joan Hoff Wilson. ''Herbert Hoover, Forgotten Progressive'' (1965)
- Pestritto, R.J. "Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism." (Rowman and Littlefield, 2005)
- Abell, Aaron I. ''American Catholicism and Social Action: A Search for Social Justice, 1865-1950'' (1960),
- Kyle Bruce and Chris Nyland; "Scientific Management, Institutionalism, and Business Stabilization: 1903-1923" ''Journal of Economic Issues'', Vol. 35, 2001
- Buenker, John D. ''Urban Liberalism and Progressive Reform'' (1973).
- Buenker, John D. ''The Progressive Era, 1893-1914'' (1998), in Wisconsin
- Frankel, Noralee and Nancy S. Dye, eds. ''Gender, Class, Race, and Reform in the Progressive Era'' (1991).
- Hahn, Steven. ''A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration'' (2003).
- Huthmacher, J. Joseph "Urban Liberalism and the Age of Reform" ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 49 (1962): 231-241, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28196209%2949%3A2%3C231%3AULATAO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X in JSTOR]; emphasized urban, ethnic, working class support for reform
- Link, William A. ''The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930'' (1997).
- Feffer, Andrew. ''The Chicago Pragmatists and American Progressivism'' (1993).
- Lubove, Roy. ''The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890-1917'' Greenwood Press: 1974.
- Rodgers, Daniel T. ''Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age'' (2000). stresses links with Europe
- Stromquist, Shelton. ''Reinventing 'The People': The Progressive Movement, the Class Problem, and the Origins of Modern Liberalism,'' University of Illinois Press, 2006. ISBN 0-252-07269-3.
- Thelen, David. ''The New Citizenship, Origins of Progressivism in Wisconsin, 1885-1900'' (1972).
- Wesser, Robert F. ''Charles Evans Hughes: politics and reform in N.Y. 1905-1910'' (1967).
- Robert H. Wiebe. "Business Disunity and the Progressive Movement, 1901-1914," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 4. (Mar., 1958), pp. 664-685. in JSTOR
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