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Professors are qualified experts who may perform the following:
The balance of these four classic fields of professorial tasks depends heavily on the institution, place (country), and time. For example, professors at highly research-oriented universities in the U.S. and all European universities are promoted primarily on the basis of their research achievements as well as their success in raising money from sources outside the university. DIFFERENCES The basic difference between levels of professor according to the national academic system is that in North America , the designation is based on Career , whereas in the rest of the world it is based on position. That means that if a North American Assistant Professor is performing particularly well, he or she can be promoted to '''Associate Professor''', and if this is the case again, to '''(full) Professor'''. In the European system, the different fields and sub-fields of teaching and research are allotted certain (professorial) '''chairs''', and one can only become a professor if one is appointed to such a chair (which then has to be free, i.e. unoccupied). Therefore, the different professorial ranks are not necessarily comparable. Furthermore, "Professor" is also a Honorific title, given when appointed to a professor's chair. At some institutions, professors may be differentiated as either "teaching professors" or "research professors" for the same body of knowledge . There are also "corporate professors" in the work place . For example, a student/professional in accounting may have to incorporate many different fields of expertise to be considered adequately trained. TENURE A '' Tenure d'' professor has a lifetime appointment until retirement, except for dismissal with "due cause". The reason for the existence of such a privileged position is the principle of Academic Freedom , which holds that it is beneficial for state, society and academe in the long run if learned persons are free to examine, hold, and advance controversial views without fear of losing their jobs. Tenure allows professors to engage in current political or other controversies. Critics assert that it also means that lazy or unpleasant professors cannot be forced to improve, and have suggested including management techniques from the business world such as performance review, audits, and performance-based salaries. UNITED STATES The term "professors" in the United States refers to a group of educators at the Tertiary Level . In colloquial language, usage of the term may refer to any educator at the post-secondary level, yet a considerable percentage of post-secondary educators are hired as lecturers or instructors, not as professors. Additionally, the post-secondary teacher classifications includes teaching assistants who are most commonly graduate students.1 In the U.S., professors commonly occupy the ranks of assistant professor, associate professor or full professor. Research and education are among the main tasks of professors with the time spent in research or teaching depending strongly on the type of institution. The publication of articles in conferences, journals, and books are essential to occupational advancement.2 Demographically, most professors in the U.S. are male, Upper Middle Class 3, and among the top 15% of wage earners. The profession has been continuously rated as one of the most admired in the country.4 In terms of Education , the vast majority hold Doctorate Degrees . Professors at community colleges may only have a Master's degree while those at four year institutions are commonly required to hold a doctorate degree.5 The vast majority of professors in the United States identify themselves as Liberal , and registered Democrats commonly outnumber registered Republicans . In a 2005 poll, nearly three quarters, 72%, of full-time faculty members identified themselves as liberal, while 15% identified themselves as conservative; the Social Sciences and Humanities were the most liberal disciplines while business was the most Conservative .6 Another 2002 survey by UCLA, found a plurality, 47.6% of professors identifying as liberal, 34.3% as moderate, and 18% as conservative.7 Despite the liberal leaning of most professors, political scientist Brett O'Bannon of DePauw University has pointed out that the liberal opinions of professors seem to have little if any effect on the political orientation of students.8 Salary The majority of professors were among the top 15% of earners age 25 or older and among the top quintile of earners age 25+ who worked full-time in 2005.9 Salaries varied widely by field and rank ranging from $45,927 for an assistant professor in theology to $136,634 for a full professor in "Legal Professions and Studies."10 A study by the College and University Professional Association for Human Resources found the average salary for all faculty members, including instructors, to be $66,407, placing half of all faculty members in the top 15.3% of income earners above the age of 25. Median salaries were $54,000 for assistant professors, $64,000 for associate professors and $86,000 for full-professors 2005.11 During the 2005-06 year, salaries for assistant professors ranged from $45,927 in theology to $81,005. For associate professors salaries ranged from $56,943 in theology to $98,530 in law, while salaries among full professors ranged from $68,214 in theology to $136,634 in law.12 Full professors at elite institutions commonly enjoy six figure incomes, such as $123,300 at UCLA or $148,500 at Stanford .13 Main positions
In addition to increasing salary, each promotional step also tends to come with increased departmental or institutional responsibilities. At some institutions, these changes are offset by a reduced teaching load. Other designations Professor emeritus: full professors who retire in good standing may be referred to as Professors Emeriti. This title is also given to retired professors who continue to teach and to be listed; they may also draw a very large percentage of their last salary as pension (as tenure is technically for life). The title may also be given to full professors who have left for another institution but are still working full time. The concept has in some places been expanded to include also associate tenured professors; in some systems and institutions, it needs a special act or vote. Distinguished (teaching/research) professor, '''University Professor''', etc.: these titles, often specific to one institution, generally are granted to the top few percent of the tenured faculty (and sometimes to under one percent). Examples include M.I.T. 's Institute Professor and Duke University 's James B. Duke Professor . Visiting professor: someone visiting another college or university to teach for a limited time; this may be someone who is a professor elsewhere or a distinguished scholar or practitioner who is not. The term may also refer simply to terminal (usually 1 to 3 years) teaching appointments and/or post-doctorate research appointments (which are much like research internships). See also: Sessional instructor. Collegiate professor: full-time professors (four or more courses per term) whose primary purpose is to teach, but also serve on academic committees. These non-tenure track positions are usually contractual, though so long as the professor's performance is strong to superior institutions tend to renew the contracts ''pro forma'' as recruiting and training professors, as well as allowing professors to gain necessary experience, is expensive and time consuming. These professors usually include the ranks "assistant," "associate," and "full professor." Since these positions are non-tenure track there is generally no publishing requirement, though many of these professors do publish, research, and consult. At a PhD-granting institution the collegiate professor must have a PhD or a terminal Master's degree (ie, MFA , MBA , etc.) as opposed to a regular master's degree (ie, MA , MB , etc.). At some institutions, terms such as ''lecturer'', ''senior lecturer'', ''instructor'', or ''preceptor'' are used for similar positions. Adjunct professor: someone who does not have a permanent position at the academic institution; this may be someone with a job outside the academic institution teaching courses in a specialized field; or it may refer to persons hired to teach courses on contractual basis (frequently renewable contracts); it is generally a part-time position with a teaching load below the minimum required to earn benefits (health care, life insurance, etc.), although the number of courses taught can vary from a single course to a full-time load (or even an overload). An adjunct is generally not required to participate in the administrative responsibilities at the institution expected of other full-time professors, nor do they generally have research responsibilities. The pay for these positions is usually nominal, even though adjuncts typically hold a Ph.D. , requiring most adjuncts to hold concurrent positions at several institutions or in industry. Due to the considerably lower salaries of adjunct professors, many universities in North America have reduced hiring of tenure-track faculty in favor of recruiting adjuncts on a contractual basis. Adjuncts provide flexibility to the faculty, acting as additional teaching resources to be called up as necessary; however, their teaching load is variable: classes can be transferred from adjuncts to full-time professors, classes with low enrollment can be summarily canceled and the teaching schedule from one semester to the next can be unpredictable (furthermore, if the university makes a good faith offer to an adjunct professor of teaching during the following semester depending on enrollment, the adjunct generally cannot file for unemployment during the break). In some cases, an adjunct may hold one of the standard ranks in another department, and be recognized with adjunct rank for making significant contributions to the department in question. Thus, e.g., one could be a "Associate Professor of Physics and Adjunct Professor of Chemistry." Named chair: a full professor who is awarded a specific, Endowed chair that has been sponsored by a fund, firm, person, etc. Named chairs are usually similar to the Continental European model in that they are a position rather than a career rank. Professor by courtesy: a professor who is primarily and originally associated with one academic department, but has become officially associated with a second department, institute, or program within the university and has assumed a professor's duty in that second department as well. Example: "Henry T. Greely is Professor of Law and Professor, by courtesy, of Genetics at Stanford University". Usually the second courtesy appointment carries with it fewer responsibilities and fewer benefits than a single full appointment. Research Professor: a professor who does not take on all four of the classic duties (see overview) but instead focuses on research. At most universities research professors are not eligible for tenure and must fund their salary entirely through research grants. In parallel with tenure-track faculty ranks, there are '''assistant''' and '''associate''' research professor positions.
Honorary professor: normally granted to those who have contributed significantly to the school and community. Say, by donation for furtherance of research and academic development. Gypsy scholar: is an informal term given to some academics who either move several times between institutions and/or work at two or more institutions at a time. There are several possible reasons explaining the existence of gypsy scholars. Many teaching jobs are now either part-time or terminal (1–3 years). Tenure-track positions are harder to secure as tenured professors are living longer lives and retiring later. Housing and living costs are rising in the vicinity of certain universities. Some faculty teach at more than one institution because their field is so small or specialized that each institution offers only one or two classes in their area. Regardless of the cause, this is a particularly severe and controversial problem in the California State University system, where many of its 23 campuses are within driving distance of each other. CSU instructors who teach at more than one institution at the same time—particularly adjunct instructors—are referred to as "freeway flyers." Kevin Starr , ''Coast of Dreams: California on the Edge, 1990-2003'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), 584. Between 1995 and 2001, they rose from 39% to 48% of CSU faculty while the percentage of faculty with tenure dropped from 47% to 35%.Starr, 584. International Professor: refers to academics teaching simultaneously on two continents, or to those who by dint of teaching in one to several foreign countries over years, come to see themselves as regionally or internationally attuned. Changes to one's personal and academic identity have now been substantiated by a growing number of scholarship and research papers. Sessional instructor: A sessional instructor is a person, usually a PhD-holder, who is hired to teach at a university or college on a limited contract, often for a single term. Considerable controversy surrounds the practice of hiring sessionals, since they are increasingly making up a large proportion of instructors at North American universities, where they earn considerably less than other instructors and have no job security. MOST OTHER ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES ''See Lecturer and Academic Rank for an explanation of these titles'' The United Kingdom , the Republic Of Ireland and most Commonwealth countries (but not Canada and India ), a professor traditionally held either a departmental chair (generally as the head of the department or of a sub-department) or a personal chair (a professorship awarded specifically to that individual). This usage is equivalent to more senior Professorship in North America, such as named or Distinguished Professorships. In most universities professorships are reserved for only the most senior academic staff, and other academics are generally known as " Lecturer s" (and Senior Lecturer s in New Universities ), approximately equivalent to North American Assistant Professors or Associate Professors, and " Senior Lecturer s" (or Principal Lecturer s in New Universities ) and " Reader s" (or Associate Professors in most New Zealand and Australia n universities), approximately equivalent to North American Associate Professors or full Professors, not holding a named or distinguished Professorship. Senior/Principal Lecturers are generally paid the same as Readers, but the latter is awarded primarily for research excellence, and traditionally carries higher prestige. During the 1990s, however, the University Of Oxford introduced Titles Of Distinction , enabling their holders to be termed Professors or Readers while holding academic posts at the level of Lecturer. In 2006 the University Of Warwick announced that it would be using the North American system in the future. Lecturers would become Assistant Professors, Senior Lecturers Associate Professor, and readers - who would be phased out - Associate Professor (Reader). The University Of Exeter has adopted the Antipodean style of " Associate Professor " in lieu of Reader. The varied practices these changes have brought about has meant that the previous consistency of academic rank in the United Kingdom is threatened. In some countries the title of "Professor" is reserved in correspondence to full professors only; lecturers and readers are properly addressed by their academic qualification (Dr. for a Ph.D. , D.Phil. etc. and Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms otherwise). In Australia, Associate Professors are often addressed as Professor. EGYPT Public universities have five ranks for faculty members: ''moeed'' (equivalent to teaching assistant), ''modares mosaed'' (equivalent to senior teaching assistant), ''modares'' (equivalent to assistant professor), ''ostaz mosaed'' (equivalent to associate professor), and ''ostaz'' (equivalent to professor) Teaching assistant: Academic departments hire teaching assistants by either directly hiring the top ranking students of the most recent graduates, or publishing advertisements. Once hired, a teaching assistant must obtain a master’s degree within five years of commencing employment. Otherwise, s/he must either leave the university, or be transferred to any administrative department that s/he is qualified for. Teaching assistants duties include preparing and delivering tutorial and lab sessions, preparing assignments and term projects requirements, preparing and conducting laboratory examinations, and tutorial quizzes, and co-supervising graduation projects. Senior teaching assistant: After a teaching assistant obtains a master degree, s/he is promoted to a senior teaching assistant. Usually, the duties do not change, but the salary increases slightly. To keep her/his post, a senior teaching assistant must obtain a doctorate degree within five years. Otherwise, s/he must either leave the university, or be transferred to any administrative department that s/he is qualified for. Assistant professor: Once a senior teaching assistant obtains a doctorate, s/he is hired as a assistant professor, and receives tenureship. Assistant professors duties include delivering lectures, supervising graduation projects, master theses, and doctorate dissertations. Associate professor: After at least five years, an assistant professor can apply for a promotion to the rank of associate professor. The decision is based on the scholarly contributions of the applicant, in terms of publications and theses and dissertations supervised. Professor: After at least five years, an associate professor can apply for a promotion to the rank of a professor. The decision is based on the scholarly contributions of the applicant, in terms of publications and theses and dissertations supervised. Academic duties of associate professors and professors are nearly the same as assistant professors. Only associate professors and professors can assume senior administrative posts like a department chair, a college vice dean, and a college dean. INDIA India has now two ways of gaining entry to the academic scenario. One is to be selected by the respective universities or colleges. The position is permanent, but there is significant oversight. The other is to be selected by a centralised commission which is very competitive but very secure. One has to do very well at MA/MSc and then take national exams to qualify for the commission's interviews. The ranking system is a hybrid of the American and British systems. There are five faculty ranks in place of three. Entry level position is Lecturer. The positions of Reader, Assistant Professors, Associate Professor and Professor in the same order. FRANCE After the Doctorate (informally known as "thèse") granted by a university or a '' Grande école '' (in France), scholars who wish to enter academia may apply for a position of ''maître de conférences'' ("master of conferences"). After some years in this position, they may take an " Habilitation to direct theses" "to conduct research" before applying for a position of ''professeur des universités'' ("university professor"). In the past, this required a higher doctorate "State Doctorate" . In some disciplines such as Law , Management ["Gestion"] and Economics , candidates take the Agrégation competitive examination; only the higher-ranked are nominated. Both maître de conférences and professors are civil servants; however they follow a special statute guaranteeing Academic Freedom . As an exception to civil service rules, these positions are open regardless of citizenship. There also exist equivalent ranks as state employees (non civil service) for professors coming from industry. These ranks are ''maître de conférences associé'' et ''professeur des universités associé'', depending on the professor's experience. Teaching staff in higher education establishments outside the university system, such as the École Polytechnique , may follow different denominations and statutes. ''Professeurs des universités'' are in some establishments, such as the EHESS , called ''directeurs d'étude'' (Research advisors). GERMANY After the doctorate, German scholars who wish to go into academic work are supposed to take a Habilitation , i.e., they write a second thesis mostly on a position as a ' or ' ("scientific assistant", C1) or a non-tenured position as ''Akademischer Rat'' ("academic councilor", both 3+3 years teaching and research positions) . Once they pass their Habilitation, they are called '' Privatdozent '' and are eligible for a call to a chair. Alternatively a process for acknowledgment by "Junior-Professorship" is possible. Note that in Germany, there has always been a debate about whether Professor is a title that remains one's own for life once conferred (similar to the doctorate), or whether it is linked to a function (or even the designation of a function) and ceases to belong to the holder once she or he quits or retires (except in the usual case of becoming Professor emeritus). The former view has won the day - although in many German '' Länder '' ("states"), there is a minimum requirement of five years of service before "Professor" may be used as a title without the respective job - and is by now both the law and majority opinion. When appropriate, the joint title ''Professor Doktor'' (Prof. Dr.), has also been heard in the German system. This reflects the fact that most academics who have reached this stage will indeed have written both a doctoral thesis and a habilitation (i.e. a second academic work beyond the doctorate). Similar or identical systems as in Germany (where a Habilitation is required) are in place, e.g., in Austria , the German-speaking part of Switzerland , Poland , Slovakia , Hungary and Slovenia . Main positions
Recent studies have found that both the interest in applying for 'junior professorships' and the willingness of academic institutions to create these positions has declined since they were first made possible. For references (all in German) and more see http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniorprofessur (the German page 'Juniorprofessur) Other positions
Other professors In the United States, the bestowal of titles on persons is prohibited by the Constitution. On the other hand, most European governments actively grant different honorifics to their noted citizens. Therefore, the government is actually considered to have a final say in who should be called a professor. This leads to some other uses of the title ''professor''.
NETHERLANDS The ranking system in Dutch universities is virtually aligned with the American system. A junior faculty starts as Lecturer (''docent'') which is equivalent to '''''Assistant Professor'''''. Within few years and subject to satisfactory performance, one is often promoted to '''Senior Lecturer''' (''hoofddocent'') which is equivalent to '''''Associate Professor'''''. Finally, following substantial research achievements and international reputation, one may be promoted to the highest rank of '''Full Professor''' (''hoogleraar''), just like in the American system. While the ranking system is similar, the concept of tenure is very different. In Dutch universities, Tenure is obtained automatically after few years of employment in a full time position due to the progressive laws of employment in the Netherlands. However, obtaining tenure in North American universities is also subject to harsh performance review. Dutch universities can also appoint Extraordinary Professors on a part-time basis. This allows the University to bring in specialized expertise that otherwise would not be available. An extraordinary professor usually has his main employment somewhere else, often in industry or at a research institute or University elsewhere. Such a ''buitengewoon hoogleraar'' has all the privileges of a full professor (''(gewoon) hoogleraar''), may give lectures on special topics, or can supervise graduate students who may do their research at the place of his main employment. ISRAEL The ranking system combines the American system and the German one. There are four faculty ranks rather than three: lecturer (''martze''), senior lecturer (''martze bakhir''), associate professor (''profesor khaver''), and full professor (''profesor min ha-minyan''). Lecturer is roughly equivalent to the American assistant professor rank, and senior lecturer to associate professor ranks. The two higher ranks have German rather than American equivalents: ''profesor chaver'' is comparable to professor extraordinarius, while ''profesor min ha-minyan'' is the equivalent, and Hebrew translation of, professor ordinarius. The academic programs of the university are controlled by a Senate, of which every full professor is a member. Israeli universities do not, as a rule, grant tenure to new hires, regardless of previous position, rank, or eminence. A candidate is considered for tenure together with promotion to the next highest rank, or after a year for initial appointemnts made at the rank of full professor. SPAIN Background information In the past twenty-five years, Spain has gone through three university reforms: 1983 (Ley de Reforma Universitaria, LRU), 2001 (Ley Orgánica de Universidades, LOU) and 2007 (a mere reform of the LOU with several specific modifications of the 2001 Act). We can name them LRU 1983, LOU 2001 and LOU 2007. The actual categories of tenured and untenured positions, and the basic department and university organization, were established by LRU 1983, and only specific details have beed reformed by LOU 2001 and LOU 2007. The most important reform introduced by these later acts has affected the way in which candidates to a position are selected. According to LRU 1983, a committee of five members had to evaluate the curricula of the candidates. A new committee was constituted for each new position, operating in the same university offering that position. These committees had two members appointed by the department (including the Secretary of the Committee), and three members who were draw-selected (from any university, but belonging to the same "knowledge area"). With this system, the department only had to "persuade" one of the three "external" members of the committee into giving the position to their "insider" (the applicant from their own department). As a consequence, good applicants were often discarded in favor of mediocre "insiders", and shameless nepotism was common for 20 years. The LOU 2001 and LOU 2007 acts have granted even more freedom to universities when choosing applicants for a position. Each university now freely establishes the rules for the creation of an internal committee that assigns available positions. It would seem that "insiders" are now even more advantaged. This is not the case, however, as the last two reforms also have introduced an external "quality control" process. To better understand these reforms, it is worth examining the situation both before and after 2007. The situation before 2007 was this: LOU 2001 had established a procedure, based on competition at national level, to became a civil servant. This procedure, and the license a candidate obtained, was called "habilitación", and it included curricula evaluation and personal examination. The external committee was formed by seven draw-selected members (belonging to the same "knowledge area" and fulfilling requisites related to research curricula), who could assign a fixed and pre-determined number of "habilitaciones" (but not positions). An applicant to a particular position in any university had to be "habilitado" (licensed) by this National Committee in order to apply. Non civil servants had a slightly different "quality control" process. A specific institution, called ANECA (Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad), examined the applicants' curricula and issued them an "acreditación" (similar to the "habilitación", but for non civil servant positions). Today, following the LOU 2007 reform, the whole process has been simplified, and both civil and non civil servants only need to pass a faster and simpler "acreditación" process (the "habilitación" is gone). The curricula are now examined by an "external" committee, and there is no personal exam. This "outside of university" quality control process has remarkably increased the level of applicants to tenured positions (civil or non-civil servants) since 2001. To sum it up, although in the past people could become ''catedrático'' or ''profesor titular'' with a random curriculum, since local support was the most important requirement for a candidate, independently of his/her research or teaching quality (LRU 1983), the certification system introduced by the LOU 2001 act (''habilitación''), which requires the candidate to pass a competitive exam at a national level for each category before applying for a position, has increased the standards of Spanish university professors to those of most countries. With LOU 2007, the "habilitación" has become "acreditación", and the committee will only evaluate the applicants' curricula, without making them go through a personal exam. Before the LOU 2001 reform, tenure implied becoming a civil servant (''funcionario''). A civil servant, as in other European countries, cannot lose his job even in the case of remarkably bad performance. This had caused the level of many universities in Spain to drop. The LOU 2001 included two other tenured positions, not of civil servant type: Profesor Colaborador (this category has disappeared in 2007), and '''Profesor Contratado Doctor''' (equivalent to ''Profesor Titular de Universidad''). Non-tenured positions include: '''Profesor Asociado''' (a part-time instructor who keeps a parallel job, for example in the industry, in a hospital or teaching in a school), '''Profesor Ayudante''' (a doctoral student working as teaching assistant), and '''Profesor Ayudante Doctor''' (a promotion from the latter, after completing the doctoral dissertation). Under present legislation (LOU 2007), only the following positions are available: Tenured positions:
Non-tenure positions:
Other positions:
Currently, a professor can be in one of the abolished categories (Profesor Titular de Escuela Universitaria, Profesor Colaborador), but no new position in these categories can be created. Of these six categories of tenured positions, four imply becoming a civil servant (''funcionario''): Catedrático de Universidad (usually the head of department, but not necessarily), '''Profesor Titular de Universidad''' (professor), '''Catedrático de Escuela Universitaria''' (fully equivalent in rank and salary to Profesor Titular de Universidad; this category has been abolished by LOU 2007), and '''Profesor Titular de Escuela Universitaria''' (this category has been abolished by LOU 2007). This last category was intended for instructors at technical schools and colleges without a PhD (the instructors currently in this category will be able to keep their job until retiring, but no new positions will be created). The ''Catedrático de Escuela Universitaria'' and the ''Profesor Titular de Universidad'' categories have been merged by the LOU 2007 reform. The two ''de Escuela Universitaria'' categories are intended mainly for teachers of three-year degrees (e.g. technical engineering, nursing, teaching in primary schools), while the two ''de Universidad'' categories include professors of any undergraduate or graduate degree. The retiring age for university professors in Spain is 65, just like all other workers. However, a university professor can work until he is 70, if he so wishes. Even then, he, or she, can apply for a Profesor Emérito position. It is a non-tenured position and it has a limited duration (4 additional years). Also, there are specific rules established by the university. Spain is not an easy country to work in for people with a foreign academic qualification. People with a degree from a foreign shool or university (even if they are Spanish citizens) must apply to the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science for a conversion into its equivalent to any of the current Spanish degrees. First, one's Bachelor's or Master's degree must be converted; after that, it is possible to apply for the conversion of the PhD degree. This procedure can take sometimes more than three years, and can fail if the courses taken by the applicant in his lower degree are too different from those required for the closest Spanish degree. For European citizens, there is a somewhat faster procedure called recognition (which can also fail) but it is only suitable for positions that do not require a curriculum evaluation by ANECA (i.e., only Profesor Ayudante). People with a Bachelor's degree who have completed a PhD immediately afterwards (that is, skipping a two year master's) have found it impossible to convert their degree, since the duration of their Bachelor's was three years, while the Spanish Bachelor's degree lasts from four to six years (four years for some degrees, including Law, Economics and Physics; six years for others, like Architecture, Engineering and Medicine). In addition, a Ph.D course in Spain lasts 2 years, but it usually takes two or more additional years to successfully complete and discuss one's dissertation. Furthermore, to become a professor of civil servant type, the applicant must be a European citizen, or be married to a European citizen. As a last consideration, besides a good knowledge of the Spanish language, in regions such as Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, Valencia, the Basque Country and Galicia, a knowledge of the local language may be required. This is one of the most serious constraints to mobility for university professors in Spain, together with low salaries (see below). BRAZIL In Portuguese , ''professor'' means both professor and teacher. Main positions
See more on: Academic Rank#Brazil SALARY OF PROFESSORS ( EUROPE ) In interest of an expert's report from 2005 of the “Deutscher Hochschulverband DHV” , a lobby of the German professors, the salary of professors in the United States, Germany and Switzerland is as follows:
Note that these countries provide different social benefits, social security, child care, etc, to their citizens making these numbers very hard to compare. COLLOQUIAL, NON-ACADEMIC USE OF THE TERM "PROFESSOR" Several non-academic professions including those of Punch And Judy Puppetry , Boxing , Self Defence and other forms of Physical Culture training traditionally apply the term "Professor" as an Honorific to senior practitioners, most especially to those who are involved in training younger professionals or the general public. PROFESSORS IN FICTION Main Article: List Of Fictional Professors As portrayed in fiction, in accordance with a Stereotype , professors are often depicted as being shy and absent-minded. An obvious example is the 1961 movie '' The Absent-Minded Professor ''. Professors have also been portrayed as being misguided, such as Professor Metz who helped the villain Blofeld in the James Bond film '' Diamonds Are Forever '', or simply evil like the Professor Moriarty who fought Sherlock Holmes . Animated series Futurama has a typical absent-minded but genius Professor Hubert Farnsworth . See also Mad Scientist . Vladimir Nabokov , author and professor of English at Cornell , frequently used professors as the Protagonist s in his novels. Professor Higgins is also a main character in My Fair Lady . In the popular Harry Potter series, a few school students are the most important characters, but their professors play many important parts. In the board game '' Clue '', Professor Plum has been depicted as absent minded. In the movie, see '' Clue (film) '', Professor Plum was a psychologist who had an affair with one of his patients. He was played by Christopher Lloyd . An example of a fictional professor not depicted as shy or absent-minded is Indiana Jones , a professor as well as an archeologist-adventurer. The character generally referred to simply as The Professor on the television series Gilligan's Island is depicted as a sensible advisor, a clever inventor and a helpful friend to his fellow castaways. John Houseman's portrayal of law school professor Charles W. Kingsfield, Jr., in The Paper Chase (1973) remains the epitome of the strict, authoritarian professor who demands perfection from students. Mysterious, older men with magical powers (and unclear academic standing) are sometimes given the title of "Professor" in literature and theater. Notable examples include Professor Marvel in ''The Wizard of O''z and Professor Drosselmeyer (as he is sometimes known) from the ballet ''The Nutcracker''. Also, the magician played by Christian Bale in the film ''The Prestige'' [http://http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0482571/ adopts 'The Professor' as his stage name. In the British sitcom, 'Time Gentlemen Please' there is a learned character who people refer to as the 'Prof' being short for professor. SEE ALSO REFERENCES |
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