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. The nuclear reactors are contained inside the rectangular Containment Building s towards the front of the cooling towers. The towers in the background vent water vapor.]] Nuclear power is a type of Nuclear Technology involving the controlled use of Nuclear Fission to release Energy for Work including Propulsion , Heat , and the generation of Electricity . Nuclear Energy is produced by a controlled Nuclear Chain Reaction and creates Heat —which is used to Boil water, produce Steam , and drive a Steam Turbine . The turbine can be used for mechanical work and also to generate electricity. USE .]] See Also: Nuclear power by country List of nuclear reactors As of 2004, nuclear power provided 6.5% of the world's energy and 15.7% of the world's electricity, with the , 15/06/2005 operating in 31 different countries.2 The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 20% of the Electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—80% As Of 2006 .34 In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity.5 Nuclear Energy Policy differs between European Union countries, and some, such as Austria and Ireland, have no active nuclear power stations. In comparison France has a large number of these plants, with 16 currently in use throughout the country. Many military and some civilian (such as some Icebreaker ) ships use Nuclear Marine Propulsion , a form of Nuclear Propulsion . International research is ongoing into different safety improvements such as Passively Safe plants, the use of Nuclear Fusion , and additional uses of produced heat such as the Hydrogen Production (in support of a Hydrogen Economy ), for Desalinating sea water, and for use in District Heating systems. HISTORY Origins Nuclear Fission was first experimentally achieved by Enrico Fermi in 1934 when his team bombarded Uranium with neutrons, however neither Fermi nor many others properly understood the results. In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann , along with Austrian physicists Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch , conducted experiments with the products of neutron-bombarded uranium. They determined that the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms had been split into two roughly equal pieces by the relatively tiny neutron, an almost incredible result. The recognition by numerous scientists ( Leo Szilard being one of the first) that if the fission reactions released additional neutrons that they could be used to generate a self-sustaining Nuclear Chain Reaction spurred scientists in many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union) to petition their government to support fission research. In the United States, where Fermi and Szilard had both emigrated, this led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1 , which achieved criticality on December 2 , 1942 . This work became part of the Manhattan Project , which built giant reactors at Hanford, Washington in order to breed Plutonium for use in the first Nuclear Weapon s. (A parallel uranium enrichment effort was also pursued.) After World War II , the fear that reactor research would encourage the rapid spread of nuclear weapons and nuclear "know-how", combined with what many scientists thought would be a long road of development, created a situation in which reactor research was kept under very strict government control and classification. Additionally, most reactor research centered on purely military purposes. Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20 , 1951 at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho , which initially produced about 100 kW (the Arco Reactor was also the first to experience partial Meltdown , in 1955). In 1952, a report by the Paley Commission (''The President's Materials Policy Commission'') for President Harry Truman made a "relatively pessimistic" assessment of nuclear power, and called for "aggressive research in the whole field of solar energy".6 A December 1953 speech by President Dwight Eisenhower , " Atoms For Peace ", emphasized the useful harnessing of the atom and set the U.S. on a course of strong government support for international use of nuclear power. Early years in Shippingport, Pennsylvania was the first commercial reactor in the USA and was opened in 1957.]] In 1954, Lewis Strauss , then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (forerunner of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission ) famously spoke of electricity in the future being "too cheap to meter."7 While few doubt he was thinking of atomic energy when he made the statement, he may have been referring to hydrogen fusion, rather than uranium fission. {Link without Title} Actually, the consensus of government and business at the time was that nuclear (fission) power might eventually become merely economically competitive with conventional power sources. On June 27 1954 , the USSR s Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a Power Grid , and produced around 5 megawatts electric power.89 In 1955 the United Nations ' "First Geneva Conference", then the world's largest gathering of scientists and engineers, met to explore the technology. In 1957 EURATOM was launched alongside the European Economic Community (the latter is now the European Union ). The same year also saw the launch of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The world's first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield , England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).10 The first commercial nuclear generator to become operational in the United States was located at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory ( California , April, 1957), soon followed by the Shippingport Reactor ( Pennsylvania , December, 1957). One of the first organizations to develop utilitarian nuclear power was the U.S. Navy , for the purpose of propelling Submarine s and Aircraft Carrier s. It has a good record in nuclear safety, perhaps because of the stringent demands of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover , who was the driving force behind Nuclear Marine Propulsion as well as the Shippingport Reactor. The U.S. Navy has operated more nuclear reactors than any other entity, including the Soviet Navy , with no publicly known major incidents. The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS ''Nautilus'' (SSN-571) , put to sea in 1955 . Two U.S. nuclear submarines, USS ''Scorpion'' and ''Thresher'' , have been lost at sea, though for reasons not related to their reactors, and their wrecks are situated such that the risk of nuclear pollution is considered low. Enrico Fermi and Leó Szilárd in 1955 shared for the nuclear reactor, belatedly granted for the work they had done during the Manhattan Project. Development Installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 Gigawatt (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and 300 GW in the late 1980s. Since the late 1980s capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005, with the largest expansion being in China. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s) — in 2005, around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled.11 Nuclear Power Plants 3 and 5 were never completed]] During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to vastly extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation) and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s (U.S.) and 1990s (Europe), flat load growth and Electricity Liberalization also made the addition of large new baseload capacity unattractive. The 1973 Oil Crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation (39% and 73% respectively) to invest in nuclear power. The Japanese Situation Today, nuclear power supplies about 80% and 30% of the electricity in those countries, respectively. A general movement against nuclear power arose during the last third of the 20th century, based on the fear of a possible Nuclear Accident , fears of Radiation , Nuclear Proliferation , and on the opposition to Nuclear Waste production, transport and final storage. Perceived risks on the citizens' health and safety, the 1979 accident at Three Mile Island and the 1986 Chernobyl Disaster played a part in stopping new plant construction in many countries,12 although the Brookings Institution suggests that new nuclear units have not been ordered in the US primarily for economic reasons rather than fears of accidents.13 Unlike the Three Mile Island accident, the much more serious Chernobyl accident did not increase regulations affecting Western reactors since the Chernobyl reactors were of the problematic ; World Association of Nuclear Operators. Opposition in Ireland and New Zealand prevented nuclear programs there, while Austria (1978), Sweden (1980) and Italy (1987) (influenced by Chernobyl) voted in referendums to oppose or phase out nuclear power. Future of the industry See Also: Nuclear energy policy Mitigation of global warming Economics of new nuclear power plants As of March 1 , 2007 , Watts Bar 1 , which came on-line in 1997 , was the last U.S. commercial nuclear reactor to go on-line. This is often quoted as evidence of a successful worldwide campaign for nuclear power phase-out. However, political resistance to nuclear power has only ever been successful in parts of Europe , in New Zealand , in the Philippines , and in the United States. Even in the US and throughout Europe, investment in research and in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle has continued, and some experts predict that Electricity Shortage s, fossil fuel price increases, Global Warming from fossil fuel use, new technology such as Passively Safe plants, and national energy security will renew the demand for nuclear power plants. Many countries remain active in developing nuclear power, including Japan , China and India , all actively developing both fast and thermal technology, South Korea and the United States, developing thermal technology only, and South Africa and China, developing versions of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Finland and France actively pursue nuclear programs; Finland has a new European Pressurized Reactor under construction by Areva . Japan has an active nuclear construction program with new units brought on-line in 2005. In the U.S., three consortia responded in 2004 to the U.S. Department Of Energy's solicitation under the Nuclear Power 2010 Program and were awarded matching funds—the Energy Policy Act Of 2005 authorized subsidies for up to six new reactors, and authorized the Department Of Energy to build a reactor based on the Generation IV Very-High-Temperature Reactor concept to produce both electricity and Hydrogen . As of the early 21st Century , nuclear power is of particular interest to both China and India to serve their rapidly growing economies—both are developing Fast Breeder Reactor s. See also Energy Development . In the Energy Policy Of The United Kingdom it is recognized that there is a likely future energy supply shortfall, which may have to be filled by either new nuclear plant construction or maintaining existing plants beyond their programmed lifetime. On September 22 , 2005 it was announced that two sites in the U.S. had been selected to receive new power reactors (exclusive of the new power reactor scheduled for INL )—see Nuclear Power 2010 Program . NUCLEAR REACTOR TECHNOLOGY See Also: Nuclear reactor technology .]] Conventional thermal power plants all have a fuel source to provide heat. Examples are gas, coal, or oil. For a nuclear power plant, this heat is provided by Nuclear Fission inside the Nuclear Reactor . When a relatively large Fissile Atomic Nucleus is struck by a Neutron it forms two or more smaller nuclei as Fission Product s, releasing energy and neutrons in a process called Nuclear Fission . The neutrons then trigger further fission. And so on. When this Nuclear Chain Reaction is controlled, the energy released can be used to heat water, produce steam and drive a Turbine that generates electricity. While a nuclear power plant uses the same fuel, Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239 , a Nuclear Explosive involves an uncontrolled chain reaction, and the rate of fission in a reactor is not capable of reaching sufficient levels to trigger a Nuclear Explosion because commercial reactor grade nuclear fuel is not Enriched to a high enough level. Naturally found uranium is less than 1% U-235, the rest being U-238 . Most reactor fuel is enriched to only 3-4%, but some designs use natural uranium or highly enriched uranium. Reactors for Nuclear Submarine s and large naval surface ships, such as Aircraft Carrier s, commonly use highly enriched uranium. Although highly enriched uranium is more expensive, it reduces the frequency of refueling, which is very useful for military vessels. CANDU Reactor s are able to use unenriched uranium because the Heavy Water they use as a Moderator and Coolant does not absorb neutrons like light water does. The chain reaction is controlled through the use of materials that absorb and moderate neutrons. In uranium-fueled reactors, neutrons must be moderated (slowed down) because slow neutrons are more likely to cause fission when colliding with a uranium-235 nucleus. Light Water Reactors use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. When at operating temperatures if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That Negative Feedback stabilizes the reaction rate. The current types of plants (and their common components) are discussed in the article Nuclear Reactor Technology . A number of other designs for nuclear power generation, the Generation IV Reactor s, are the subject of active research and may be used for practical power generation in the future. A number of the advanced nuclear reactor designs could also make critical fission reactors much cleaner, much safer and/or much less of a risk to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Controlled Nuclear Fusion could in principle be used in Fusion Power plants to produce power without the complexities of handling actinides, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but as yet none has 'produced' more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The ITER project is currently leading the effort to commercialize fusion power. SAFETY See Also: Nuclear safety See Also: Nuclear safety in the U.S. The topic of nuclear safety covers:
Many different safety features have been added to nuclear power plants and the NRC is responsible for this. ECONOMICS See Also: Economics of new nuclear power plants This is a controversial subject, since multi-billion dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. Which power source (generally coal, natural gas, nuclear or wind) is most cost-effective depends on the assumptions used in a particular study—several are quoted in the main article. LIFE CYCLE is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel, (1) which is delivered to a Nuclear Power Plant . After usage in the power plant, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3) for geological disposition. In Reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can be recycled to be returned to usage in a power plant (4).]] See Also: Nuclear fuel cycle A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for nuclear power. The process starts with mining. Generally, uranium mines are either open-pit Strip Mines , or In-situ Leach mines. In either case, the uranium ore is extracted, usually converted into a stable and compact form such as Yellowcake , and then transported to a processing facility. Here, the yellowcake is converted to Uranium Hexafluoride , which is then Enriched using various techniques. At this point, the enriched uranium, containing more than the natural 0.7% U-235, is used to make rods of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor that the fuel is destined for. The fuel rods will spend about 3 years inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned, then they will be moved to a Spent Fuel Pool where the short lived isotopes generated by fission can decay away. After about 5 years in a cooling pond, the spent fuel is radioactively cool enough to handle, and it can be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed. Fuel resources See Also: Uranium market See Also: Energy_development#Nuclear_energy l1=Energy development - Nuclear energy Uranium is a common Element , approximately as common as Tin or Zinc , and it is a constituent of most rocks and of the sea. The world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at a price of 130 USD/kg, are enough to last for some 70 years at current consumption. This represents a higher level of assured resources than is normal for most minerals. On the basis of analogies with other metallic minerals, a doubling of price from present levels could be expected to create about a tenfold increase in measured resources, over time. The fuel's contribution to the overall cost of the electricity produced is relatively small, so even a large fuel price escalation will have relatively little effect on final price. For instance, typically a doubling of the uranium market price would increase the fuel cost for a light water reactor by 26% and the electricity cost about 7% (whereas doubling the gas price would typically add 70% to the price of electricity from that source). At higher prices eventually extraction from sources such as granite and seawater become economically feasible. href="#ref_15">15[http://www.ans.org/pubs/journals/nt/va-144-2-274-278 [http://www.nuclearinfo.net/Nuclearpower/WebHomeEnergyLifecycleOfNuclear_Power]16 Current Light Water Reactor s make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, leading to energy waste. But Nuclear Reprocessing makes this waste reusable (except in the USA, where this is not allowed) and more efficient reactor designs would allow better use of the available resources (and reduce the amount of waste material).17 As opposed to current light water reactors which use Uranium-235 (0.7% of all natural uranium), Fast Breeder Reactor s use Uranium-238 (99.3% of all natural uranium). It has been estimated that there is up to five-billion years’ (also the estimated remaining life of the Sun ) worth of uranium-238 for use in these power plants.18 Breeder technology has been used in several reactors, but requires higher uranium prices before becoming justified economically.19 As of December 2005, the only breeder reactor producing power is BN-600 in Beloyarsk, Russia. (The electricity output of BN-600 is 600 MW — Russia has planned to build another unit, BN-800, at Beloyarsk nuclear power plant.) Also, Japan's Monju reactor is planned for restart (having been shut down since 1995), and both China and India intend to build breeder reactors. Another alternative would be to use uranium-233 bred from Thorium as fission fuel — the Thorium Fuel Cycle . Thorium is three times more abundant in the Earth's crust than uranium, and (theoretically) all of it can be used for breeding, making the potential thorium resource orders of magnitude larger than the uranium fuel cycle operated without breeding.20 Unlike the breeding of U-238 into plutonium, fast breeder reactors are not necessary — it can be performed satisfactorily in more conventional plants. Fusion Power commonly propose the use of Deuterium , an Isotope of Hydrogen , as fuel and in many current designs also Lithium . Assuming a fusion energy output equal to the current global output and that this does not increase in the future, then the known current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea water would last 60 million years, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium from sea water would have fuel for 150 billion years. Depleted uranium See Also: Depleted uranium Uranium enrichment produces many tons of Depleted Uranium (DU) which consists of U-238 with most of the easily fissile U-235 isotope removed. U-238 is a tough metal with several commercial uses — for example, aircraft production, radiation shielding, and making bullets and armor — as it has a higher density than Lead . There are concerns that U-238 may lead to health problems in groups exposed to this material excessively, like tank crews and civilians living in areas where large quantities of DU ammunition have been used. Solid waste The safe storage and disposal of nuclear waste is a significant challenge. The most important waste stream from nuclear power plants is spent fuel. A large nuclear reactor produces 3 cubic metres (25-30 tonnes) of spent fuel each year.21 It is primarily composed of unconverted uranium as well as significant quantities of transuranic Actinides ( Plutonium and Curium , mostly). In addition, about 3% of it is made of Fission Product s. The actinides (uranium, plutonium, and curium) are responsible for the bulk of the long term radioactivity, whereas the fission products are responsible for the bulk of the short term radioactivity. Spent fuel is highly radioactive and needs to be handled with great care and forethought. However, spent nuclear fuel becomes less radioactive over time. After 40 years, the Radiation Flux is 99.9% lower than it was the moment the spent fuel was removed, although still dangerously radioactive. Spent Fuel Rod s are stored in shielded basins of water ( Spent Fuel Pool s), usually located on-site. The water provides both cooling for the still-decaying uranium, and shielding from the continuing radioactivity. After a few decades some on-site storage involves moving the now cooler, less radioactive fuel to a dry-storage facility or Dry Cask Storage , where the fuel is stored in steel and concrete containers until its radioactivity decreases naturally ("decays") to levels safe enough for other processing. This interim stage spans years or decades, depending on the type of fuel. Most U.S. waste is currently stored in temporary storage sites requiring oversight, while suitable permanent disposal methods are discussed. As Of 2003 , the United States had accumulated about 49,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors. Underground storage at Yucca Mountain in U.S. has been proposed as permanent storage. After 10,000 years of radioactive decay, according to United States Environmental Protection Agency standards, the spent nuclear fuel will no longer pose a threat to public health and safety. The amount of waste can be reduced in several ways, particularly Reprocessing . Even so, the remaining waste will be substantially radioactive for at least 300 years even if the actinides are removed, and for up to thousands of years if the actinides are left in. Even with separation of all actinides, and using Fast Breeder Reactor s to destroy by Transmutation some of the longer-lived non-actinides as well, the waste must be segregated from the environment for one to a few hundred years, and therefore this is properly categorized as a long-term problem. Subcritical Reactor s or Fusion Reactors could also reduce the time the waste has to be stored.22 It has been argued that the best solution for the nuclear waste is above ground temporary storage since technology is rapidly changing. The current waste may well become a valuable resource in the future. The nuclear industry also produces a volume of low-level radioactive waste in the form of contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the materials of which the reactor itself is built. In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has repeatedly attempted to allow low-level materials to be handled as normal waste: landfilled, recycled into consumer items, et cetera. Most low-level waste releases very low levels of radioactivity and is only considered radioactive waste because of its history. For example, according to the standards of the NRC, the radiation released by coffee is enough to treat it as low level waste. In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes comprise less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes, which remain hazardous indefinitely unless they decompose or are treated so that they are less toxic or, ideally, completely non-toxic. Overall, nuclear power produces far less waste material than fossil-fuel based power plants. Coal -burning plants are particularly noted for producing large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash due to concentrating naturally occurring metals and radioactive material from the coal. Contrary to popular belief, coal power actually results in more radioactive waste being released into the environment than nuclear power. The population Effective Dose equivalent from radiation from coal plants is 100 times as much as nuclear plants. Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger accessed 23 July 2007 Reprocessing Reprocessing can potentially recover up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium in spent nuclear fuel, putting it into new - 04-22 Unlike other countries, the US has stopped civilian reprocessing as one part of US non-proliferation policy, since reprocessed material such as plutonium can be used in nuclear weapons. Spent fuel is all currently treated as waste. Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel for Recycle . WNA In February, 2006, a new U.S. initiative, the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership was announced. It would be an international effort to reprocess fuel in a manner making Nuclear Proliferation unfeasible, while making nuclear power available to developing countries.23 DEBATE ON NUCLEAR POWER Since and Safety are used by both sides of the debate. Critics claim that nuclear power is an uneconomic and potentially dangerous energy source with a limited fuel supply compared to Renewable Energy , and dispute whether the costs and risks can be reduced through new Technology . Critics also point to the problem of storing Radioactive Waste , the potential for possibly severe Radioactive Contamination by accident or sabotage, the possibility of Nuclear Proliferation and the disadvantages of centralized electrical production. Greenpeace , for instance, has never changed its anti-nuclear position, Greenpeace-US positions themselves with this statement on their website:
Proponents of nuclear energy respond that nuclear power is a Sustainable Energy source that reduces Carbon Emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on foreign countries for energy sources. Proponents also claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by the technology in the new reactors and the operational safety record is already good when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. Many go on to argue that renewables are limited to a minority share of energy production because they are Intermittent Power Sources and have questionable economics themselves as well as demanding too much money for development. James Lovelock , a nuclear supporter, of the Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy has said:
Accidents See Also: Nuclear and radiation accidents The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES), developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), is used to communicate the severity of Nuclear Accidents on a scale of 0 to 7. The two most well-known events are the Three Mile Island Accident and the Chernobyl Disaster . The 1979 Accident At Three Mile Island Unit 2 was the worst civilian nuclear accident outside the Soviet Union (INES score of 5). The reactor experienced a partial core Meltdown . However, the Reactor Vessel and Containment Building were not breached and little radiation was released to the environment.26 The event resulted in fundamental changes in how plants in the West were to be maintained and operated. The Chernobyl Disaster in 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (now Ukraine ) was the worst nuclear accident in history and is the only event to receive an INES score of 7. The power excursion and resulting steam explosion and fire spread Radioactive Contamination across large portions of Europe . A large 2005 study found that the death toll includes the 50 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome, nine children who died from Thyroid Cancer , and an estimated 4000 excess cancer deaths in the future, added to an estimated 100,000 cancer deaths in this population due to other factors. Supporters of nuclear power argue that this accident occurred due to several critical design flaws in the Soviet RBMK reactors, such as lack of a Containment Building which would have stopped radioactive emissions from that accident, and that security in the remaining RBMK reactors have greatly improved. {Link without Title} Design changes are being pursued to lessen the risks of fission reactors; in particular, Passively Safe plants (such as the ESBWR ) are available to be built and Inherently Safe designs are being pursued. Fusion reactors which may come to exist in the future theoretically have very little risk. The World Nuclear Association provides a comparison of deaths due to accidents among different forms of energy production. In their comparison, deaths per TWy of electricity produced are 885 for hydropower, 342 for coal, 85 for natural gas, and 8 for nuclear.27 Air pollution from fossil fuels is argued to cause tens of thousands of additional deaths each year in the US alone.28 Furthermore, a 2004 news article from the BBC stated, "The World Health Organization (WHO) says 3 million people are killed worldwide by outdoor air pollution annually from vehicles and industrial emissions, and 1.6 million indoors through using solid fuel. Most are in poor countries."29 Vulnerability of plants to attack Nuclear power plants are generally (although not always) considered "hard" targets. In the US, plants are surrounded by a double row of tall fences which are electronically monitored. The plant grounds are patrolled by a sizeable force of armed guards. Nuclear Security – Five Years After 9/11 accessed 23 July 2007 The NRC's "Design Basis Threat" criteria for plants is a secret, and so what size attacking force the plants are able to protect against is unknown. However, to Scram a plant takes less than 5 seconds while unimpeded restart takes hours, severely hampering a terrorist force in a goal to release radioactivity. Attack from the air is a more problematic concern. The most important barrier against the release of radioactivity in the event of an aircraft strike is the Containment Building and its missile shield. The NRC's Chairman has said "Nuclear power plants are inherently robust structures that our studies show provide adequate protection in a hypothetical attack by an airplane. The NRC has also taken actions that require nuclear power plant operators to be able to manage large fires or explosions—no matter what has caused them."30 In addition, supporters point to large studies carried out by the US Electric Power Research Institute that tested the robustness of both reactor and waste fuel storage, and found that they should be able to sustain a terrorist attack comparable to the September 11 Terrorist Attacks in the USA. Spent fuel is usually housed inside the plant's "protected zone"31 or a Spent Nuclear Fuel Shipping Cask ; stealing it for use in a "dirty bomb" is extremely difficult. Exposure to the intense radiation would almost certainly quickly incapacitate or kill any terrorists who attempt to do so.32 Nuclear power plants are designed to withstand threats deemed credible at the time of licensing. However, as weapons evolve it cannot be said unequivocably that within the 60 year life of a plant it will not become vulnerable. In addition, the future status of storage sites may be in doubt. Other forms of energy production are also vulnerable to attack, such as Hydroelectric Dams and LNG tankers. Use of waste byproduct as a weapon An additional concern with nuclear power plants is that if the by-products of nuclear fission—the Nuclear Waste generated by the plant—were to be unprotected it could be used as a Radiological Weapon , colloquially known as a " Dirty Bomb ". There have been incidents of nuclear plant workers attempting to sell nuclear materials for this purpose (for example, there was such an incident in Russia in 1999 where plant workers attempted to sell 5 grams of radioactive material on the open market,33 and an incident in 1993 where Russian workers were caught attempting to sell 4.5 kilograms of enriched uranium.343536), and there are additional concerns that the transportation of nuclear waste along roadways or railways opens it up for potential theft. The UN has since called upon world leaders to improve security in order to prevent radioactive material falling into the hands of terrorists,37 and such fears have been used as justifications for centralized, permanent, and secure waste repositories and increased security along transportation routes.For an example of the former, see the quotes in Erin Neff, Cy Ryan, and Benjamin Grove, "Bush OKs Yucca Mountain waste site" , ''Las Vegas Sun'' (2002 February 15). For an example of the latter, see ""DIRTY BOMB" PLOT SPURS SCHUMER TO CALL FOR US MARSHALS TO GUARD NUCLEAR WASTE THAT WOULD GO THROUGH NEW YORK" , press release of Senator Charles E. Shumer (13 June 2002). Health effect on population near nuclear plants . The reactor dome is visible on the left, and the massive cooling tower on the right.]] Most of human exposure to radiation comes from natural Background Radiation . Most of the remaining exposure comes from medical procedures. Several large studies in the US, Canada, and Europe have found no evidence of any increase in cancer mortality among people living near nuclear facilities. For example, in 1991, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) of the National Institutes Of Health announced that a large-scale study, which evaluated mortality from 16 types of cancer, found no increased incidence of cancer mortality for people living near 62 nuclear installations in the United States. The study showed no increase in the incidence of childhood leukemia mortality in the study of surrounding counties after start-up of the nuclear facilities. The NCI study, the broadest of its kind ever conducted, surveyed 900,000 cancer deaths in counties near nuclear facilities. {Link without Title} |
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