| Nine Years War |
Website Links For War |
Information AboutNine Years War |
The War of the Grand Alliance ( 1688 – 1697 ) – often called the '''Nine Years’ War''' or occasionally, the '''War of the League of Augsburg''' or the '''War of the Palatinian Succession''' – was a major conflict fought primarily on Continental Europe, but which also encompassed secondary theatres in Ireland (often called the Williamite War ), and North America (commonly known as King William's War ). Since the signing of the Treaty Of Nijmegen , ending the Franco-Dutch War ( 1672 – 1678 ), France’s expansionist policies under Louis XIV had threatened to secure hegemony over Europe. However, by the 1680s the Holy Roman Empire under Leopold I was gaining ascendancy in its struggle with the Ottoman Turks in the Balkans – strengthening the Emperor’s position in central Europe. These advancements encouraged Leopold and his allies – the Protestant German princes, Spain, and Sweden – to form the defensive League Of Augsburg in opposition to France on 9 July 1686 . In November 1688 William Of Orange successfully invaded England leading to the ‘Glorious Revolution’ and the deposition of James II . With William as Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and now as King Of England , he was able to form the coalition to oppose France that he had long since been striving for. On 12 May 1689 , William and Leopold formed the Grand Alliance with the aim of forcing France back to her borders as designated in the Treaty Of Westphalia . The war ended indecisively with the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick ( Rijswijk , now a suburb of The Hague ) on 20 September 1697 by the main powers, France, the Dutch Republic, England and Spain , with Leopold signing later on 30 October . But although the French influence had increased militarily on land – and the Dutch and English at sea – the conflict between the Habsburgs and Bourbon dynasties had yet to be resolved. Some see the war as the beginning of the '' Second Hundred Years' War '', a persistent conflict between the new Kingdom Of Great Britain and France that would only end with the Battle Of Waterloo .Tombs: ''That Sweet Enemy'', p. 3-24. BACKGROUND At the death of ( 1667 – 1668 ). genealogy.]] After an easy victory against Spanish forces, Louis decided to sue for peace after the Dutch Republic , England and Sweden formed the Triple Alliance in opposition. The subsequent peace of Aix-la-Chapelle rewarded Louis with minor gains, most notably of which was Lille , but the pressure from the Triple Alliance was not the only reason Louis accepted such easy terms. Earlier in January 1668, Louis had negotiated a secret partition treaty with the Austrian Habsburgs to divide up the substantial Spanish Empire should the infirm Charles II die. The Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I (or his children) would inherit the Spanish throne, the American empire, Milan and ports on the Tuscan coast; whereas Louis would inherit Spanish Navarre , the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comté , Naples , Sicily , and the Philippines . Although there was no formal signing between Louis and Leopold, the Spanish themselves tacitly accepted the partition to prevent any immediate major annexations.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.22 However, Charles II did not die, and his survival through childhood made the succession issue far less immediate. After French diplomacy brought about the dissolution of the Triple Alliance, Louis prepared for his first great conflict, the Franco-Dutch War ( 1672 – 1678 ). Louis’ war minister, Colbert , was keen to take much of the Dutch trade and to break certain Dutch trade monopolies – he believed France’s economic success could only be assured with the military destruction of the Dutch.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.25 Louis’ motives though, were more personal. He saw the Dutch intervention in the War of Devolution as a betrayal and was determined to punish the Dutch.Lynn: ''The French wars 1667–1714: The Sun King at War,'' p.35 However, despite Leopold having signed a neutrality agreement with Louis, the ease of France’s military successes in the Dutch Republic had concerned both the Emperor and the Elector Of Brandenburg who, along with Spain (worried over the annexation of the Spanish Netherlands), formed an anti-French coalition on 30 August 1673 . On 28 May 1674 , the German Diet , also concerned about French ambition, declared war on France, summoning the German princes to assist the Emperor. But despite Louis losing his ally, Charles II of England – who had been starved of funds by his anti-French parliament – and being forced to withdraw from most of the territory of the Dutch Republic, France’s inherent military and economic strength ensured her successes continued. However by 1676 , both sides were exhausted enough to be willing to negotiate a settlement.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.33 PRELUDE Treaty of Nijmegen (Nymegen) At the end the Franco-Dutch War, Louis had significant advantages over his opponents: his armies had been increasingly successful at the closing stages of hostilities and, unlike his adversaries – the Dutch, the German princes and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs – Louis had total control of his own policy-making, enabling him to exploit his enemies' differences.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.34 .Doyle: ''Short Oxford History of France – Old Regime France,'' p181. Although Nijmegen was a triumph for Louis, peace disappointed him and he had dismissed Pomponne, the minister who had negotiated it. Although the treaty ensured the survival of the Dutch Republic and its trade, Spain had lost under its terms. Besides losing Haiti in the Caribbean , Spain also ceded Franche-Comté, reinforcing Louis’ control of his territory in Alsace . Louis also made modest gains in the Spanish Netherlands (largely fort exchanges with Spain), strengthening Vauban's policy of building a defensive barrier of fortresses along France’s northern borders. Lorraine , on his eastern border, also remained in French hands, as did Freiburg , but although Louis had settled for moderate terms and relatively small gains, he had been able to break up the allied coalition.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.35 However, convinced that the peace with France was only temporary, William was determined to create a permanent alliance to oppose future French ambition. Reunions France’s military superiority after the Dutch War was never more apparent, but Louis was no longer interested in an adventurist, open-ended war policy as in 1672. The insistence on other powers accepting French supremacy still remained but Louis used threats and dubious legal means, rather than open war, to achieve his objectives. As well as maintaining a huge Standing Army after the Dutch war, Vauban’s fortress system was extended along France’s eastern border with Louis’ most dangerous foe, Germany. However, to construct a proper defensive system France required more land from her neighbours.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.36 For this purpose special French courts, called the ', allowed France to pin down the Duchy Of Savoy and threaten the Spanish Duchy Of Milan . Louis’ troops also began the siege of Luxembourg to add to their acquisitions in the Moselle valley, but although this siege was abandoned in March 1682, French hostility continued. To Louis, these acquisitions under the reunions claims were rational acts of stabilization along his borders (all the lands taken were important strategic entry points between France and her neighbours and all were immediately fortified by Vauban), but the bordering states considered them acts of aggression. The Spanish and minor German states involved were all cowed by Louis’ standing army and could only appeal to the Dutch and the Emperor for help. Therefore, on the same day that Strasbourg fell and Casale was occupied, the Dutch signed an alliance with Charles XI of Sweden, who was angry over his territory of Zweibrucken. This was followed by an alliance with Emperor Leopold in February 1682 and with Spain in May, but six out of the eight Electors – Mainz , Trier , Cologne , Saxony , Bavaria and Brandenburg-Prussia – remained allied to France.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.38. Louis thought that the support of the German states was so strong that if Leopold died, they may even support a French candidate as emperor. Leopold though, was under pressure along his Spanish resistance had collapsed and Luxembourg had fallen to Vauban and Marshal Créqui, leading in August to the negotiations at Regensburg (Ratisbon). In return for a truce with Spain and the Emperor (allowing Leopold and the princes to concentrate on the Balkans ), France was allowed to keep all her reunion claims as well as Strasbourg and Luxembourg for a period of 20 years. Louis hoped to make these acquisitions permanent, but William of Orange remained intent on building a coalition with Spain and the Emperor and retake all that had been won by Louis’ military intimidation. The truce of Regensburg marked a high point of territorial expansion under came to the English throne. Expecting James to ally himself with France, his son-in-law William of Orange became isolated and powerless, especially because Amsterdam’s powerful Burghers wanted no further conflict with France. ( 1638 – 1715 ), by René Antoine Houasse. Here seen at the height of his powers at about the age of 40. To Louis, wars were contests over glory, territory and sovereignty.Lynn: ''The French wars 1667–1714: The Sun King at War, p.32'' ]] League of Augsburg In October 1685 Louis issued the ) were forced to flee the country including many merchants, industrialists, soldiers and sailors. Although the Dutch benefited from the exodus with the increase of 9,000 sailors and 12,600 soldiers, the flight helped destroy the pro-French group in the Dutch Republic, not only because of their Protestant affiliations, but with the exodus of Huguenot merchants (who often acted as Dutch commercial agents), and the harassment of Dutch merchants living in France, it also greatly affected Franco-Dutch trade. In England there was growing concern over James’ ), together with the Emperor, Spain and Sweden (in their capacity as princes within the Empire) formed the League Of Augsburg to defend the treaties of Westphalia , Nijmegen and Regensburg. McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.41 Initially the League posed little threat to Louis, but during 1686/87 Leopold made substantial progress against the Turks at Buda and Mohács . The subsequent revolt within the Turkish army and deposition of Sultan Mehmed IV paralysed the Ottomans, enabling Leopold’s forces to move on Belgrade the following year. These remarkable victories had a profound effect on Europe. In contrast to Louis who had refused to help, both Protestant and Catholic princes extolled Leopold as a champion of Christendom; almost overnight the French king’s support in Germany disintegrated and Louis was branded as the ‘Christian Turk’. Archbishop of Cologne By summer of 1688 it was clear to Louis and his principal advisors Louvois and Colbert De Croissey , that they had to act before the Emperor turned his attention from the Balkans to lead the Dutch, and a comparatively united German Empire, against France on the Rhine .McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.42 It was therefore imperative that the Turks were encouraged to continue fighting and tie down Leopold while Vauban finished his defences on their eastern border. The French king was concerned enough to take steps to perpetuate his influence at held a number of strategically important bishoprics (they provided links for the Dutch with the Empire and the Spanish Netherlands), straddling the southern and eastern frontiers of the Dutch Republic. The existing Archbishop, Maximilian , was old and frail and Louis wanted to be sure of his successor. He therefore had his client, William Egon Of Fürstenberg elected as Coadjutor , and by implication, the next Archbishop. After the incumbent Archbishop died in June 1688, and despite all the signs signifying victory for Fürstenberg, an inconclusive election for the position followed, after the brother of the Elector Of Bavaria , Joseph Clement (supported by the Emperor and subsequently by Pope Innocent XI ) stood against Fürstenberg. However, the disputed election at Cologne had aroused further fears in Germany of French aggression and helped further to unite the German princes. Moreover, the Dutch oligarchs and merchants, also more fearful of Louis’ ambitions, gave William their wholehearted support. From June 1688 the disputed election looked like it would provide the spark to ignite the war between Louis and the German princes.Miller: ''James II,'' p.191 WAR OF THE GRAND ALLIANCE Continental Europe (1688–89) See Also: War of the Grand Alliance (Continental European Theatre) Louis’ obsession of making France invulnerable led to the longest war to date of his reign – the War of the Grand Alliance. Louis only planned a short campaign (similar to that against the Spanish in 1683/84), with the aim of encouraging the Turks to continue their war, and to frighten the Emperor and the Germans into accepting the Reunions claims (as confirmed at the peace of Regensberg), as permanent. By attacking across the Rhine to invest Philippsburg on 27 September 1688 (the only one of the three major fortresses in Alsace which Louis did not already control), Louis also hoped to resolve the Cologne election in favour of Fürstenberg and secure part of the Palatinate in favour of his sister-in-law. Philippsburg fell on 1689 and Mannheim on 8 March ; Speyer, Worms , Oppenheim and Bingen , as well as many surrounding villages, also suffered under Louis’ destructive policy. Once the French had created their Rhineland defensive barrier they fended off the Germans as best they could, but Marshal Duras lacked the troops to defeat the enemy. These early French victories were partly reversed when Mainz fell on 8 September 1689 to a German force commanded by Duke Charles of Lorraine while Kaiserwörth and Bonn fell to the Elector of Brandenburg.Lynn: ''The French wars 1667–1714: The Sun King at War,'' p.50 But while Louis XIV was busy on the Rhine, William’s attention was turned towards England. 'Glorious Revolution' (1688–89) genealogy. (The emblem shown is William and Mary's coat of arms). William III became James’ son-in-law when he married his daughter, Mary in 1677. Mary became joint sovereign with her husband in 1689 after the ' Glorious Revolution '.]] See Also: Glorious Revolution The openly Catholic James II’s ill-advised attempts to Catholicise the army, government and other institutions had proved increasingly unpopular with his (mainly Protestant) subjects. By Royal Prerogative James suspended the operation of various statutes such as the Act Of Uniformity and the Test Act ; he also suspended penal legislation against religious nonconformity, permitting Dissenters to worship in meeting-houses, and Catholics to worship in private.Miller: ''James II,'' p.156 James’ open Catholicism and his dealings with Catholic France had also strained relations between England and the Dutch Republic, but because his wife Mary was the Protestant heir to the English throne, William had been reluctant to act against James in case it ruined her succession prospects.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.44 However, on 10 June 1688 James’s second wife, Mary Of Modena , gave birth to a male heir, threatening a Catholic dynasty to which neither the English public nor William would countenance. Prominent English statesmen – Whigs , Tories and Protestant churchmen – secretly invited William to invade England and assume the throne. The Dutch oligarchs, worried about Anglo-French alliance, gave the Stadtholder a free hand to use Dutch troops; William also had the tacit approval of the Emperor and even the anti-French Pope Innocent XI in return for assurances that Catholics would be tolerated in Britain. Louis did little to stop William’s invasion of England (his principal concern was with the German powers in the Rhineland, dispelling fears in the Dutch Republic of a possible French attack upon them). This enabled William to land his forces unhindered at ’, ended James’ reign; William and Mary became joint sovereigns on 13 February 1689 while James became a refugee in France.Miller: ''James II,'' p.209 landed in England on 5 November ( Guy Fawkes day); a day already special in the Protestant calendar.]] William had come to England to use her power in the struggle against French expansion. But although English troops were used extensively on the continent (almost as many as the Dutch), English politicians and generals played little part in the War; only at sea was command given to English rather than Dutch admirals.McKay & Scott p.47: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815'' William’s success rapidly led to the formation of the European coalition he had long desired. On 12 May 1689 the Dutch and Emperor Leopold signed the Grand Alliance (the aim of which was to force the French back to their borders of 1648 and 1659); this meant for the Emperor and the German princes the re-conquest of Lorraine, Strasbourg, parts of Alsace and some fortresses on the Rhine. The Emperor also insisted that the other allies should promise to support his claims to the Spanish succession if the present incumbent, the childless Charles II, died during the war. William, as King William III of England, signed in December. Spain and Savoy joined the coalition in June 1690; Sweden and the major German Princes also associated themselves with the coalition. France was to fight alone, save for the loose relationship with the Turks who were still fighting against Leopold in the Balkans – a war that would last until 1699.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.45 The German princes proved willing to co-operate in the war against Louis and accepting of Leopold as their leader (although they had no intention of sacrificing their own independence). Since the Swedes were part of the coalition, Frederick of Brandenburg–Prussia put aside his differences with them over Pomerania , and the Emperor himself acted for the Empire rather than just his own dynastic and hereditary lands in Austria. Ireland (1689–91) See Also: Williamite War in Ireland The war in Ireland was an extension of the continental struggle. After leaving France, the exiled James II, together with Count d’Avaux, the French ambassador to James’ court (and various other supporters), landed in Ireland at Kinsale in March 1689. Along with the Catholic Lord Deputy of Ireland, Richard Talbot, the Duke Of Tyrconnell , James hoped first to establish control in Ireland before proceeding on to Scotland , and thence England, in an attempt to regain his throne.McNally: ''Battle of the Boyne 1690,'' p.13 Several obstacles lay in James' way. Most influential Irish supporters were reluctant to ‘liberate’ England and Scotland from William – a number wished to break the English connection altogether; secondly, Louis held all the purse-strings and was reluctant to supply troops to Ireland; and thirdly, total success depended on pacifying the parts of Ulster – including Protestant strongholds of Londonderry and Enniskillen – that remained hostile to the old Catholic king.Chandler: ''Marlborough as Military Commander,'' p.34 The subjugation of Ulster however proved a forlorn hope. The 105 days siege of Londonderry was abandoned on 10 August ( 31 July O.S) and, on the same day, James’ forces under Viscount Mountcashel were routed at Newtownbutler . Further bad news arrived for the Jacobite cause from Britain. Although William’s army in Scotland under the command of General Hugh Mackay was defeated by Dundee at the Battle Of Killiecrankie on 6 August ( 27 July O.S) 1689, the Jacobite Highlanders were themselves defeated at Dunkeld on 31 August ( 21 August O.S) leading to the dispersion of the clans and the end, for now at least, of the Jacobite struggle in Scotland.Kinross: ''The Boyne and Aughrim: The War of the Two Kings,'' p.17 On ( 14 June O.S), William landed at Carrickfergus with 15,000 troops, bringing the total of the Williamite forces to almost 44,000; (James could muster 39,000 in all).Kilpatrick: ''William of Orange: A dedicated Life 1650-1702,'' p.57. The strength of the Williamite army varies from 35,000 to 44,000, depending on the source. No French fleet attempted to stop them – it was in France’s interest that William directed his attention and resources to Ireland. the Meanwhile the epicentre of the war on the Continent had moved from the Rhine to the Spanish Netherlands and the French–Flanders border where, on on 11 July ( 1 July O.S) – leading to James’ hastened flight back to France – Louis still had a clear strategic advantage. However, James’ appeals for assistance to Louis were not heeded; with his attention drawn towards the Continent, the French king would neither send more troops to Ireland nor, for the moment, invade England.Kilpatrick: ''William of Orange: A dedicated Life 1650-1702,'' p.64 took Cork and Kinsale in southern Ireland in October (isolating the Jacobite forces from further supplies), ready for the '' Coup De Grâce '' the following year. Together with the successful Williamite siege of was besieged for a second time on 4 September leading to the Treaty Of Limerick . The treaty, signed by Ginkell and the Irish commander, Patrick Sarsfield on 13 October ( 3 October O.S) 1691, finally ended Louis’ Irish diversion and James’ hopes, for now at least, of regaining his kingdom. Continental Europe continued (1691–97) The pacification of Ireland had released thousands of troops for William’s war on the continent but Louis also benefited from 12,000 Irish troops (the so-called took Mons on 10 April followed by Marshal Luxembourg’s victory against Prince Waldeck at Leuze on 19 September . This success was followed in 1692 at Namur (which capitulated on 25 – 26 May ) – by the middle of the year the French were ready for an invasion of England. At navy.Mackay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.48 Other fronts were less active; operations along the (never again to take to the battlefield with his army), Marshal Luxembourg defeated William’s army at the bloody Battle Of Landen . The battle though, had little effect beyond attrition; despite suffering enormous casualties, William was able to maintain himself in the field.Churchill: ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution,'' p.16. Churchill states the battle was unmatched in its slaughter except for Malplaquet or Borodino for over 200 years. Famine had exhausted the protagonists in 1694 and the year saw no great battles or sieges. Although William was able to take the small fortress of had gained the upper hand, forcing a strategic re-think in France – the French navy switched from fleet warfare to privateering against Anglo-Dutch shipping. This caused serious damage to the commerce of the maritime powers, and together with the Anglo-Dutch fleets enforcing the blockade, the Allies were unable to use their navies in an offensive way against either Europe or French possessions overseas; Louis could only be defeated on the Continent. In January 1695, Louis’ undefeated commander Marshal Luxembourg died; with his passing, Marshal Villeroi became French commander in the Spanish Netherlands. Because Villeroi’s talents fell short of Luxembourg’s, the defensive nature of the war was further emphasised. However, the Allies achieved the last great victory of the War of the Grand Alliance in the Spanish Netherlands – the retaking of Namur. Coehoorn, in a role reversal of 1692, led the attack on the town which finally capitulated on 5 September . Elsewhere, in northern Italy , the French forces commanded by Marshal Catinat had earlier defeated Victor Amadeus, The Duke Of Savoy at the Battle Of Staffarda on 18 August 1690. The following year Catinat took Nice between 24 March and 2 April and, while campaigning along the Po , he also captured Carmagnola just south of Turin . However, after Savoy was reinforced with imperial forces, raising their number to 45,000, Catinat was forced to pull back, losing Carmagnola in October. Despite a large numerical disadvantage throughout 1692 the French commander was able to hold on to Susa and Pinerolo and, in the following year (after French reinforcements were sent to aid Catinat), he defeated Amadeus at the Battle Of Marsaglia on 4 October .Lynn: ''The French wars 1667–1714: The Sun King at War,'' p.60 Throughout 1694 the theatre was relatively quiet, but although Amadeus had been badly bruised by the French, by 1695 both he and Louis were keen to cut a deal. In 1696, Victor Amadeus and Louis concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Turin on 29 August . The Duke of Savoy was the first major partner to abandon the Allied coalition but Louis had agreed to substantial concessions; he surrendered Nice and the fortress of Pinerolo to Savoy and abandoned the fortress of Casale . However, the peace undermined the Spanish and Austrian troops who had been sent to aid Victor Amadeus, and furthermore, opened Spanish Milan to possible French invasion. The two powers therefore made an armistice with France in northern Italy, which, to William’s consternation, allowed Louis to transfer 30,000 men to the hard-pressed fronts in the Spanish Netherlands .McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.51 witnessed battles of manoeuvre. The French commander, Throughout 1696 and 1697 the main theatre of the war saw little action. Villeroi in Flanders and Boufflers on the Meuse commanded a total of 125,000 men against which William III, the Prince Of Baden and the Landgrave of Hesse could muster a similar number. At the start of the campaign season in 1697 the French took Ath on 5 June and the Prince of Baden was able to take Ebernberg in September just before the end of the war. Behind the scenes however, William’s and Louis’ representatives were bargaining hard for peace.Lynn: ''The French wars 1667–1714: The Sun King at War,'' p.60 The Dutch Republic, England and France alike, were facing economic and financial exhaustion.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.51 The only decisive theatre on the continent was in , numbered 12,000 in 1690 dropping to 10,000 in 1691; only in 1694 when other fronts were relatively quiet did the Spanish front grow in importance, (but even then Louis invested only 26,000 troops). After Rosas fell in 1693, the French drove deeper into Catalonia , defeating the Spanish at the Battle Of Torroella (Ter) on 27 May 1694 and taking Palamos on 10 June ; Gerona fell on 29 June . The arrival in August of an Allied fleet under Admiral Russell forestalled an intended French siege of Barcelona in 1694/95. However, after the Allied fleet departed from Cadiz and sailed north in 1696, Vendôme , with the assistance of French fleet under Victor-Marie D'Estrées , took Barcelona in 1697, the final major action of the war. North America (1689–97) See Also: King William's War The European war was reflected in North America – albeit very different in meaning and scale. Notwithstanding a formal agreement between France and England to preserve peace, French policy in North America and the was a focal point of dispute between the Protestant English and Catholic French colonists, both of whom claiming a share of its occupation and trade. It was with this background that in April 1689 William informed his colonists of his intention to declare war on France. batteries firing on Phip’s ships during October 1690.]] Although important to the colonists of England and France, the North American theatre of the War of the Grand Alliance, commonly called King William's War , was of secondary importance to European statesmen. Despite numerical superiority, the English colonists suffered repeated defeats as New France effectively organised its French troops, Canadian militia and Indian allies to attack frontier settlements.Taylor: ''American Colonies: The Settling of North America,'' p.290 The conflict began in 1689 with a series of Indian massacres (the first of which was the destruction of 1690 at the Albany Conference, colonial representatives elected to invade Canada. In August a land force commanded by Colonel Winthrop set off for Montreal , and a naval force, commanded by Sir William Phips (who earlier on 11 May had seized the capital of French Acadia , Port Royal ), set sail for Quebec via the Saint Lawrence River . Both the expeditions against Quebec and St Lawrence were humiliating and financial disasters for the English, made worse for them when the French were retook Port Royal. Phips sailed for England to request support, but William, whose navy was busy in the English Channel and whose troops were required in Ireland and the Spanish Netherlands, could provide little help for his distant colony; the colonists were left largely to defend themselves.Taylor: '' American Colonies: The Settling of North America,'' p.290 The Quebec expedition was the last major offensive of King William’s War; for the remainder of the war the English colonists were reduced to defensive operations and skirmishes. However, the Iroquois Five Nations suffered from the ineptitude of their English allies.Taylor: ''American Colonies: The Settling of North America,'' p.290 In 1693 and 1696, the French and their Indian allies ravaged Iroquois towns and destroyed crops while New York colonists remained passive. After the English and French made peace with the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, the Iroquois, now abandoned by the English colonists, remained at war with New France until 1701.Taylor: '' American Colonies: The Settling of North America,'' p.291 AFTERMATH last great war, the War Of The Spanish Succession in 1701.]] There was considerable pressure from politicians in both and Louis XIV were determined on peace. Louis’ aggressive stance had become increasingly moderate, but above all, he felt it essential to break up the Allied coalition before the infirm Charles II Of Spain died – France would have far less chance of gaining the Spanish succession if it was still at war with Spain and if Austria’s allies were still committed to support Leopold’s claims.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.51 A peace congress opened in May 1697 at William's palace in Ryswick (now the town of 1697 , France, the Dutch Republic, England and Spain signed the Treaty of Ryswick. Emperor Leopold though, desperate for a continuation of the war so as to strengthen his own claims to the Spanish succession, was reluctant to seek peace with Louis. However, because he was still at war with the Turks , and could not face fighting France alone, Leopold also sought terms and signed the treaty on 30 October .McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.52 By the peace terms the French retained the whole of ''. However in the Caribbean, Spain formally ceded Saint-Domingue to France.Parker: ''Times Atlas of World History,'' p.156 Neither Leopold nor the German princes had achieved their aim of pushing France back to the , he now recognised William as King of Protestant England – Jacobitism had been suppressed and Scotland and Ireland were now firmly under direct control. French naval power had also been destroyed, paving the way for English naval supremacy in the following century – Britain had emerged as a European power in her own right.McKay & Scott: ''The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815,'' p.53 Both the French and the Grand Alliance considered the agreements regarding France’s borders, as stipulated in the treaty, as little more than interim ones – the disputes over who would succeed the infirm Charles II had yet to be resolved. Within four years, both James II and William III would be dead, and Louis XIV and the Grand Alliance would plunge into an even more ferocious struggle – the War Of The Spanish Succession . NOTES REFERENCES
|
|
|