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Neo-Nazism (literally ''new Nazism '') is the ideology of post- World War II political movements seeking to revive Nazism. The specific policies of neo-Nazi groups differ, but they often include allegiance to '', September 9, 2007 Individuals who have attempted to revive Nazism include Colin Jordan , George Lincoln Rockwell , Savitri Devi , Francis Parker Yockey , William Pierce , Eddy Morrison , and David Myatt . HOLOCAUST DENIAL AND MINIMIZATION See Also: Holocaust denial Many neo-Nazis promote Holocaust Denial . They claim that the intentional Mass Murder —often in Gas Chamber s—of more than 6,000,000 Jew s is a lie or grossly exaggerated. Most people accuse them of using Holocaust denial to make Nazism more palatable by removing its association with Genocide . Some Holocaust deniers don't identify as neo-Nazis, while some, such as David Cole, are actually Jewish . Some neo-Nazis who don't deny the Holocaust have pointed out alleged immoral equivalencies (e.g. the Bombing Of Dresden and the Expulsion Of Germans After World War II ), or have justified executions by the Nazis as retaliations for Sabotage , Terrorism and Subversion . Leading historians' estimates of the number of Jews who died during the Holocaust range from 5.1 to 6.2 million. Dawidowicz, Lucy . ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975. Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995) Hilberg, Raul. The destruction of the European Jews (Yale Univ. Press, 2003, c1961). Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Bauer, ''Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp'', Indiana University Press, 1998, p.71. Gilbert, Martin, Atlas of the Holocaust, New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc, 1993. AUSTRIA Immediately after the Allies liberated Austria in 1945, the anti-Nazi parties - Socialists ( SPÖ ), Conservatives ( ÖVP ) and Communists ( KPÖ ) - passed legislation to overcome the effects of Nazi rule. A law passed on May 8, 1945, banned the NSDAP and Nazi activities. The '' Denazification '' program designed to purge the state apparatus and society of Nazi followers was not successful, mainly because of the size of the problem and the bureaucratic shortcomings of the program. This failure was reflected primarily in the fact that ex-members and sympathizers of the NSDAP did not change their beliefs. Over 500,000 registered Nazis were allowed to vote in the 1949 general election. A considerable number of ex-Nazis were integrated into the SPÖ and the ÖVP, and several concessions were made to appease them, such as suppression of the history of the ''Nazizeit'' (literally 'Nazi Time'); a fall-off in the prosecutions of Nazi war criminals; and the reinstatement of Nazi civil servants, teachers, professors, lawyers and police officers. In the 1949 Austrian elections, ex-Nazis in the Verband Der Unabhängigen (VdU) put up candidates and won seats, and the Austrian right wing went through a process of growth. The withdrawal of Allied troops from Austria in 1955 encouraged the consolidation of right-wing groups, ranging from neo-Nazis to moderate Pan-Germans. The VdU split in 1955, but re-formed itself one year later as the Freedom Party Of Austria (FPÖ). The first leaders of the FPÖ were former Nazis, such as Anton Reinthaller, who had been a government minister in the Nazi era, and Friedrich Peter , who had been a Schutzstaffel (SS) officer. The Austrian public saw itself confronted with the organized right for the first time in 1959, during the Schiller Celebrations, when Pan-German youth, sport and cultural organizations took to the streets. The Burschenschaften and schlagende Verbindungen (fraternities of male uniformed students), the FPÖ's students' organization RFS and its graduate equivalent Freiheitliche Akademikerverbände (FAV) attained considerable influence within student and university bodies. 1960s and later In the 1960s, right-wing extremists, along with ''German Kameraden'', gained notoriety by involvement in terrorist acts in the Italian province of Bolzano-Bozen . Prominent among these was Norbert Burger, the ex-RFS leader and subsequent chairman of the neo-Nazi Nationaldemokratische Partei (NDP). The influence that the extreme right had gained in the universities became dramatically apparent five years later, during the ''Borodajkewycz Affair''. Hundreds of students demonstrated in favor of the anti-semitic university professor Borodajkewycz, and were involved in street battles — in the course of which Ernst Kirchweger , a former concentration camp inmate, was beaten to death. During the 1960s and 1970s, Friedrich Peter, Chairman of the FPÖ, started establishing his party within the democratic party system — leading up to the entry of the FPÖ into a coalition government with the Socialists in 1983. This development led to the formation of a group around Norbert Burger (condemned in absentia by an Italian court for terrorist offenses in Bolzano-Bozen), which split from the FPÖ in 1966 and set up the NDP. In contrast to its German counterpart of the same name, the Austrian NDP found little resonance in an electorate moving to the left in the late 1960s. In 1972, Kurt Waldheim , an Austrian Nazi, had been elected United Nations Secretary General. Waldheim's election had caused anger among some people who had lost relatives in the Holocaust , as well as anti-UN groups who theorized the UN was supportive of totalitarian ideologies. The volume "Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945", issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active extreme right-wing organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to ''liberalization'' programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft, the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.Brigitte Bailer-Galanda/Wolfgang Neugebauer. (1996). 'Incorrigibly Right - Right-Wing Extremists, "Revisionists" and Anti-Semites in Austrian Politics Today'. Vienna-New York. In the 1980s, in the province of Carinthia , border issues with Slovenia — and disagreements over the rights of Carinthia's Slovenian minority — were used to orchestrate support for the far right organization Kärntner Heimatdienst . BELGIUM See Also: Bloed-Bodem-Eer en Trouw A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, '', Jeudi 7 septembre 2006 A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in '', September 8, 2006 CROATIA See Also: Neo-Nazism in Croatia Neo-Nazis in Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations by Kurt Jonassohn, Karin Solveig Björnson Transaction Publishers 1998, page 279 To further legitimize the claim that Croats constituted a distinct nation, entitled to their own state, Starcevic revived archaic usages and invented new words to artificially separate a Croatian literary language from the common Serbo-Croatian linguistic stock. It is interesting to note that Starcevic's ideas were later advocated by Ante Pavelic and the Ustashi Croatia: A Nation Forged in War by Marcus Tanner, Yale University Press 1997, Page 106: Pavelic claimed Starcevic was the spiritual father of the Ustashe-run Independent State of Croatia (NDH) At the end of during the 1990s.http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/DGB4V0MCGNFLU49E.pdf Jonathan Levy, one of the lawyers representing plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party , the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb ." http://www.christusrex.org/www1/news/haaretz-1-15-06a.html In 1999, with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić " was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.http://www.ex-yupress.com/nacional/nacional7.htmlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3605236.stmhttp://see.oneworld.net/article/view/92811/1/ Post-war support for Ustaše is also visible in the form of graffiti and other hate-based vandalism.http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=253042 During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected War Criminals have carried Nationalist symbols and pictures of Ante Pavelić.http://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285A285B2863285D2863285A28582858285E2863286328632859285F2859285F2861285828632863286328592863M In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian Penal Code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, Historical Revisionism and Holocaust Denial . However, this attempt was prevented by the Croatian Constitution al court in the same year.http://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285A285F2863285E2863285A28582858285E286328632863286028582860285D285C28632863286328592863F In 2005, the Croatian government made a move toward the Nazi-era law interpretation and practice, by granting to the Croatian parliament the exclusive right to interpret and authenticate the law. http://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285B28582863285928592863285A28582858285E2863286328632859285E2861285E285A285C28632863286328592863I An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of n authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at the May 12 gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg , Austria.Wiesenthal Center Welcomes Opening of Investigation by Austrian Authorities of the Display of Fascist Ustasha Symbols at Recent Bleiburg Gathering Austrija pokrenula istragu o ustaskim obiljezjima u Bleiburgu [http://www.jutarnji.hr/clanak/art-2007,6,12,bleiburg_austrija,78243.jl (Croatian) '' Thompson '', a popular Croatian singer, has sung " Jasenovac I Gradiška Stara " in his concerts. That song glorifies the Ustaše and their Genocide of the Serbs His May 17, 2007 concert in Zagreb was attended by 60000 people, many of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes, and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (For home ready) en-masse. This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly address a protest to the Croatian president, Stjepan Mesić . Zuroff Mesiću: Gnušamo se ustaških simbola na Thompsonovu koncertu [http://www.jutarnji.hr/clanak/art-2007,6,18,zuroff_mesic,78943.jl (Croatian) Margelov institut traži opoziv ministra Kirina zbog Thompsonovog koncerta (Croatian) Nazi hunters slam singer’s concert [http://www.suntimes.co.za/News/Article.aspx?id=496261 Nazi hunter raps 'fascist' Croatian rock concert Jews slam Croatia's failure to condemn 'Nazi' concert [http://www.ejpress.org/article/17594 GERMANY In Germany immediately after World War II , Allied Forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of new Nazi movements through a process known as Denazification . The West German government had passed strict laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs as well as barring them from the political process. Displaying the swastika was an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. There was little overt neo-Nazi activity in Europe until the 1960s. However, some former Nazis retained their political beliefs, and passed them down to new generations. .]] After German Reunification in the 1990s, neo-Nazi groups gained more followers, mostly among disaffected teenagers in the former East Germany . Many were new groups that arose amidst the economic collapse and high unemployment in the former East Germany. They have also had an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland ) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former German Democratic Republic after Germany was reunited. Their ideology was similar to that of Otto Strasser ( Strasserism ). Activities German neo-Nazis have attacked accommodations for Refugee s and migrant workers in Hoyerswerda (September 17-September 22, 1991); Rostock -Lichtenhagen (August 23-August 27, 1992); and Schwedt, Eberswalde, Eisenhüttenstadt, Elsterwerda (October 1991). A May 29, 1993 neo-Nazi arson attack on the house of a Turkish family in Solingen resulted in the deaths of two women and three girls, as well as in severe injuries for seven other people. Neo-Nazis were involved in the murders of three Turkish girls in a November 23, 1992 arson attack in Mölln , in which nine other people were injured. These events preceded demonstrations in many German cities involving hundreds of thousands of people protesting against Far Right violence. These protests precipitated massive neo-Nazi counter-demonstrations and violent clashes between neo-Nazis and Anti-fascist s. Official German statistics record 178 violent crimes motivated by right-wing extremism in 1990. Statistics show that in 1991, there were 849 hate crimes, and in 1992 there were 1,485 (with a significant concentration in the eastern Bundesländer). After 1992, the numbers went down, although they have risen sharply in subsequent years. In the former East Germany, an average of 17 people have been murdered every year by far right groups.http://serwisy.gazeta.pl/swiat/1,34180,3354654.html Legal issues German law forbids the production of pro-Nazi materials, so such items are smuggled into the country mostly from the United States , Scandinavia , the Czech Republic , Hungary and Italy . Neo-Nazi rock bands such as Landser have been outlawed in Germany, yet bootleg copies of their albums printed in the US and other countries are still sold in the country. ''.]] An American neo-Nazi group called NSDAP/AO runs an illegal smuggling ring, for supplying pro-Nazi materials to neo-Nazis in Europe and other locations where such materials are banned by law. NSDAP/AO supplies items such as magazines, CDs, posters, portraits, clothing, patches, stickers, pamphlets. German neo-Nazi websites mostly depend on Internet servers in the US and Canada , and use other terms for Nazi ideas and symbols. They also invent new symbols reminiscent of the Swastika and adopt other symbols used by the Nazis, such as the sun disc, Sun Wheel , hooked cross, wolf's cross, Wolf's Hook , Black Sun , and dark star. A trial was held before the Federal Constitutional Court Of Germany over the prohibition of the National Democratic Party (NPD) , which had been accused of being a neo-Nazi party. In the course of the trial, it was discovered that some high-ranking party members worked as informants for the domestic intelligence service, the Bundesamt Für Verfassungsschutz . The trial was temporarily suspended, and then rejected by the court because of the unclear influence of informants within the NPD. In 2004, NPD received 9.1% of the vote in the parliamentary elections for , the NPD received 7.3% of the vote and six seats in the local parliament. Other neo-Nazi groups that have been active in Germany and have attracted government attention include the Volkssozialistische Bewegung Deutschlands/Partei Der Arbeit (which was banned in 1982), the Action Front Of National Socialists/National Activists (banned in 1983), the Nationalist Front (banned in 1992), the Free German Workers' Party of Michael Kühnen and Friedhelm Busse , the German Alternative and National Offensive . GREECE The most notable Greek neo-Nazi political organization was Hrisi Avgi , which stopped its activities in late 2005. Hrisi Avgi held 10 offices across Greece, and published a monthly youth magazine. Members of Hrisi Avgi have continued their activities through the Patriotic Alliance , a nationalist party formed two months before the 2004 European Parliament Elections (in which it gathered 10,000 votes, corresponding to 0,17% of the general vote). Neo-Nazis in Greece are influenced by the Metaxas quasi-fascist dictatorship, the Security Battalions during the Second World War, and the Collaborationist regimes which were placed in power by the Nazis during the German occupation of Greece (1940-1944) — such as those of Tsolakoglou, Ioannis Rallis and Logothetopoulos. Neo-Nazis in Greece have been tied to hate-driven attacks on and Greece, Albanian Hooligans set the Greek flag on fire, so members of Hrisi Avgi and The Blue Army (a nationalist group of football fans) launched a series of Riots . They targeted Albanian immigrants in Greece, killing one and wounding seven. RUSSIA The post- Soviet era has seen the rise of a variety of extreme Nationalist movements in Russia , some of which are openly Neo-fascist or neo-Nazi. Neo-Nazi groups of Russia are characterized by extreme Xenophobia towards non-whites, Racism , Islamophobia , and Anti-Semitism . Social roots The collapse of the Soviet economic system in the early 1990s caused great economic and social problems,including widespread Unemployment and Poverty . Several Far Right Paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among the marginalized, lesser educated, and habitually unemployed youth. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communists , and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income. Moreover, Soviet-era indoctrination into the ideals of Egalitarianism predisposed most adults against the message of right-wing extremists. Younger Russians were much less likely to have such inclinations. Ideology Russian neo-Nazi organizations have generally defined themselves as standing outside of the political process, disdaining the electoral system and advocating the overthrow of the government by force. Their ideology has centered on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jew s, Muslim s and Caucasian immigrants. Cleansing the nation by killing or expelling Muslims, Jews and dark-skinned people has been a generally accepted goal for Russian neo-Nazis. Their ideology became epitomized in the slogan "Russia for the Russians", a catchphrase also adopted by less extreme factions. Russian neo-Nazis have generally not outlined discernible economic programs. They have openly admired and imitated the German Nazis and Adolf Hitler , and Hitler's book '' Mein Kampf '' stood high on their reading list. The most prominent organization, Russian National Union , led by Aleksandr Barkashov , adopted a three-ray Swastika as its emblem (the German Nazi swastika can be thought of consisting of two rays; the ''Z'' shaped segments). Activities Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally. Reputedly, many were interested in Martial Arts and unarmed combat, and have organized realistic Hand To Hand Combat classes. Russian neo-Nazis' most notable action so far was their participation in the armed defense of the Supreme Soviet building against government forces during the standoff between Boris Yeltsin and the Communist-dominated parliament in 1993. On August 15 , 2007 , Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two Muslim, migrant workers being executed in front of a red and black swastika flag. Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine...There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally." 1 A Russian neo-nazi group called the National Socialists of Rus claimed responsibility for the murders. SERBIA There are several Neo-Nazi groups and organizations in Serbia. While Neo-Nazism in Germany mostly focuses on racial and political intolerance, Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious intolerance. ''Neonacizam, fašizam i desni ekstremizam u Nemačkoj i Srbiji: sličnosti i razlike'' (in Serbian), ''centar za nove medije_kuda.org'' Serbian.com'', January 9, 2006, each of them facing up to 8 years in prison. The group is still active, however, as shown by the recent display of religious hatred. Serbia: Neo-Nazi Vandals Post Message on Adventist Church , ''Adventist News Network'', July 12, 2007 While most of the public said that such incidents were "a threat to the democratic development and the European perspectives of Serbia", the Serbian.com'', November 11, 2005 The Blood and Honor Skinhead organization has its branch in Serbia, where it is called ''Krv i čast''. On their official web site, members of the Serbian branch claim they intend "to propagate revolutionary idea of National Socialism without compromise. Also, the intention of Serbian Blood and Honour Division is to motivate all NS followers to radical activities and not only to passive observing or listening to the music." Blood and Honor, official web site This organization, with chapters in several Serbian cities, organized several memorial concerts on the anniversary of Hitler's birth, starting in 2001. "Bela nadmoć" i "Krv i čast" , ''Patriot Online'' http://www.crnps.org.yu/xdoc/arhivavesti/hitlerjugend.htm Hitlerjugend sa gitarama , ''IMC Beograd'', June 25, 2005 There were several attacks on Roma by skinhead gangs. State Dept Yugoslavia Report – Roma , ''RomNews Network Community'', 2000 In 2001, Belgrade had Its First Gay Parade . A crowd of skinheads, clerics, soccer fans and ultranationalists attacked the participants, seriously injuring several of them, and succeeded in stopping the event. A video of the violence at the Gay Pride event in Belgrade , Google Video In 2006, two Israel i citizens were severely beaten by a group of skinheads wearing Nazi symbols in a Belgrade park. It was not the first such anti-Jewish and racist attack by skinheads and other such groups in Serbia, said the Serbian Jewish Community. http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3297266,00.html Skinheads attack 2 Israelis in Belgrade , ''Ynet News'', August 29, 2006 UNITED STATES In the United States , neo-Nazi groups are a sub-type of a wider array of anti-Semitic and white supremacist groups. American neo-Nazi groups tend to pay homage to — but are often less focused on — the specific tenets of the NSDAP than some neo-Nazi groups in other countries. Neo-Nazi groups in the United States can be traced back to the 1920s, with the US branch of the Nazi Party . This organization merged with Free Society Of Teutonia to form the German-American Bund . The Bund and other groups achieved a limited popularity in the 1930s (at one point staging a rally with over 20,000 people), but rapidly faded with the onset of the Second World War. The groups either disbanded or were dismantled by force during the war period. After the war, new organizations formed, with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. It is difficult to determine the extent of neo-Nazi organizations in the United States, because these groups are aware that public opinion concerning them is negative, and there are organizations dedicated to monitoring their activities (such as the Anti-Defamation League and Southern Poverty Law Center ). While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate Underground , so they may recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. The American correctional system houses many white supremacist and neo-nazi prison gangs, but more often than not, white prisoners join said gangs for protection from the other prison gangs, and do not necessarily subscribe to the ideologies that political neo-Nazi groups tend to emphasize . The United States Constitution guarantees Freedom Of Speech , which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist and anti-Semitic views. One notable event in the United States in which neo-Nazis were legally allowed to assemble is known as the ''Skokie Affair'' . American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere. However, neo-Nazis are a tiny percentage of the national population. More often than not, neo-Nazis are outnumbered by counter-protesters at public demonstrations, and are quickly prosecuted for any crimes, such as Hate Crimes . In addition to targeting Jews and African Americans , neo-Nazi groups are known to harass and attack Asian Americans , Latinos , Arab Americans , Homosexuals and people with different Political or Religious opinions. The life of a neo-Nazi living in Venice Beach, California is depicted in the 1998 movie American History X . Legal issues Some American neo-Nazi groups incite violence, however it is sometimes difficult for authorities to implicate them in violence or illegality in any meaningful way. In this way, prominent neo-Nazis may inspire, incite or even order violent crimes without much fear that their involvement will be traced back to an official organization. One notable North America n exception to this fact is The Order , which had members convicted of crimes such as racketeering, conspiracy, violating civil rights and sedition. Other exceptions are Matthew F. Hale of the World Church Of The Creator , who was imprisoned for soliciting the murder of a federal judge; and Richard Butler of Aryan Nations , which lost a $6.2 million dollar lawsuit after Aryan Nations members opened fire on a passing vehicle. Aryan Nations has since lost its headquarters and paramilitary training grounds, and has split into three separate organizations. NEO-NAZI ORGANIZATIONS The Americas
Scandinavia
United Kingdom
Other European countries
Other continents
NEO-NAZI BANDS
SEE ALSO
FOOTNOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary sources
Academic surveys
EXTERNAL LINKS News reports and criticism
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