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Native Americans in the United States are the Indigenous Peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the Continental United States , including parts of Alaska . They comprise a Large Number of distinct Tribes , State s, and Ethnic Group s, many of which are still enduring as political communities. There is a wide range of terms used, and some Controversy Surrounding Their Use : they are variously known as '''American Indians''', '''Indians''', '''Amerindians''', '''Amerinds''', or '''Indigenous''', '''Aboriginal''' or '''Original Americans'''. Not all Native Americans come from the contiguous U.S. Some come from Alaska, Hawaii and other Insular regions. These other indigenous peoples, including Alaskan Native groups such as the Inupiaq , Yupik Eskimo s, and Aleut s, are not always counted as Native Americans, although Census 2000 demographics listed "American Indian and Alaskan Native" collectively. Native Hawaiians (also known as Kanaka Māoli and Kanaka Oiwi) and various other Pacific Islander American peoples, such as the Chamorros (Chamoru), can also be considered Native American, but it is not common to use such a designation. EUROPEAN COLONIZATION Initial impacts The European Colonization Of The Americas nearly obliterated the populations and cultures of the Native Americans. During the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries, their populations were ravaged by conflicts with European explorers and colonists, Disease , displacement, Enslavement as well as Internal Warfare . Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, Epidemic Disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives. Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge Epidemics The Story Of... Smallpox The first Native American group encountered by Christopher Columbus in 1492, were the Island Arawaks (more properly called the Taino ) of Boriquen ( Puerto Rico ), the ( Quisqueya ) of the Dominican Republic , the Cubanacan ( Cuba ). It is said that of the 250 thousand to 1 million Island Arawaks, only about 500 survived by the year 1550, and the group was considered extinct before 1650. Yet DNA studies show that the genetic contribution of the Taino to that region continues, and the mitochondrial DNA studies of the Taino are said to show relationships to the Northern Indigenous Nations, such as Inuit (Eskimo) and others.1 In the sixteenth century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought Horse s to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. Ironically, the horse had originally evolved in the Americas, but the early American horse became game for the earliest humans and became extinct about 7,000 BC, just after the end of the last Ice Age . The re-introduction of the horse had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America. As a new mode of travel the horse made it possible for some tribes to greatly expand their territories, exchange goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture Game . s often immediately followed European exploration, sometimes destroying entire villages. While precise figures are difficult to arrive at, some historians estimate that up to 80% of some Native Populations died due to European diseases. Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest coast of North America in the 1770s. In 1617-1619 Smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Indians. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679, killing millions. During the 1770's, smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. Smallpox American Indian Epidemics Early relations Spanish explorers of the early 16th century were probably the first Europeans to interact with the native population of Florida.2 The first documented encounter of Europeans with Native Americans of the United States came with the first expedition of Juan Ponce De León to Florida in 1513, although he encountered at least one native that spoke Spanish. In 1521, he encountered the Calusa people during a failed colonization attempt in which they drove off the Europeans. In 1526, Lucas Vásquez De Ayllón tried to found a colony in what is now South Carolina , but for multiple reasons it failed after only a year. The remaining slaves of the colony revolted and fled into the wilderness to live among the Cofitachiqui people. The next encounter came with the members of the Narváez Expedition from 1528–1536. Álvar Núñez Cabeza De Vaca wrote a detailed account of the failed expedition which includes descriptions of several Native American cultures he encountered from Florida, the northern Gulf Coast , Texas , possibly New Mexico and Arizona , and northern Mexico . He described the behavior, living situation, dress, and food of the people he encountered as he wandered from village to village. An expedition in 1539 headed by Fray Marcos De Niza went in search of The Seven Cities Of Gold . They were guided by another survivor of the Narváez expedition, Estevanico , who encountered the Zuni people in his wanderings. Following de Niza in search of the fabled cities was Francisco Vásquez De Coronado from 1540–1542. He had encounters with the Hopi and Zuni as well as several other native groups in Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Kansas , and Oklahoma . Also in 1539, the Hernando De Soto Expedition traveled through the Southern United States from 1539–1542. This expedition was responsible for introducing diseases into that region, and also resulted in several battles with various tribes. De Soto's expedition was almost lost in what is today Alabama when Chief Tuskaloosa of the Choctaw people, suspicious of de Soto's intentions, prepared an ambush. When one of the Spanish explorers attacked a Choctaw man, Tuskaloosa's warriors almost decimated the Spanish contingent. The expedition included a member of the failed Narváez expedition of 1528 named Juan Ortiz who lived among the Tocobaga people for twelve years before being rescued by de Soto. In August 1570, a group of Spanish Jesuit s landed on the Virginia Peninsula to create their Ajacan Mission . Their guide, a convert to Christianity named Don Luis , soon left them and rejoined his tribe. Around February of 1571, Don Luis returned with other natives, stole all their clothing and supplies, and killed all but a young servant boy. This disastrous attempt at establishing a mission in Virginia spelled the end of Spanish ventures to colonize the area. [http://www.mariner.org/chesapeakebay/colonial/col001.html Another encounter was the failed Roanoke Colony led by Sir Walter Raleigh of England beginning in 1584. At first, the local tribes on Roanoke Island bartered with the colonists, but this was during a time of a severe drought, and when the local tribes grew more reluctant to trade, relations deteriorated. Supplies from England were interrupted by a war with Spain, and they were gone when the supplies finally arrived after 3 years. The fate of the colonists has never been ascertained, leading to the 400 year mystery of the "Lost Colony". {Link without Title} By 1578 there were about 350 European fishing vessels at Newfoundland and sailors began to trade metal implements (particularly knives) for the natives' well worn pelts. The French Fur Trade was undertaken by Francis Grave (a merchant) and Chauvin (a captain) in 1599 when they acquired a monopoly from Henry IV and their attempt to establish a colony at the mouth of the Saguenay River was a direct result of their desire to profit from trading native fur pelts for European goods. , chief of the Narragansett tribe, 1681.]] England attempted again to colonize, in May of 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia , and in August 1607 with the Popham Colony in present-day Maine . The Popham Colony interacted with the Abeneki tribe, but failed to establish cooperation, and was abandoned after a year. Jamestown became the first permanent English settlement in the United States. However, it only survived with a great loss of life. Jamestown's breakdown in relations with the Paspahegh and Powhatan tribes resulted in the First Anglo–Powhatan War , which ended with the marriage of John Rolfe and Pocahontas , the youngest daughter of Chief Powhatan in 1614. In 1610 a teenage Étienne Brûlé was sent by Samuel De Champlain to live with the Huron s for a year as a sort of 'exchange student'. Champlian, in turn, accepted the company of a Huron youth named Savignon who accompanied him back to France. The two cultures made a successful rendezvous the next year and the young men returned to their respective groups to report their experiences. In 1620, a group of English settlers, including the Pilgrims , who were heading for the Hudson River , got blown off-course and anchored in Provincetown Harbor before they settled at present-day Plymouth, Massachusetts , instead, during a harsh winter. In the autumn of 1621, they celebrated a three-day thanksgiving feast with the native Wampanoag people, without whom they would not have survived the winter of 1620. On March 22, 1622 about 347 people, or almost one-third of the English population of Jamestown colony, were killed by a coordinated series of surprise attacks of the Powhatan Confederacy under Chief Opechancanough . Opechancanough launched a campaign of surprise attacks upon at least thirty-one separate English settlements mostly along the James river. Around 347 people were massacred in the attack The Great Migration continued into the 1630s and 40s, creating many settlements in New England and the Virginia Colony . Dutch Colonization activities proceeded in an overlapping Pequot War . Meanwhile, Spanish and French Colonization were also proceeding on other areas of the continent. Some European settlers used Native American contacts to further their activities in the Fur Trade ; others sold European technology to the natives, including firearms which fueled tribal wars. Peaceful coexistence was established in some times and places. For example, the careful diplomacy of William Pynchon facilitated the founding of what would become Springfield, Massachusetts in a desirable farming location close to the native Agawam settlement. Struggles for economic and territorial dominance also continued to result in armed conflict. In some cases these latent conflicts resulted in escalating tensions, gradually followed by escalating multi-party violence. In other cases sudden, relatively unprovoked raids were conducted on native and colonial settlements, which might involve Arson , massacre, or kidnapping for Slavery . Determining how many people died in these in the area that would eventually become the continental United States , from first contact (1511) to the closing of the frontier (1890), and determined that 9,156 people died from Atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans, and 7,193 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Europeans. Osborn defines an atrocity as the Murder , Torture , or mutilation of civilians, the wounded, and Prisoners . The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During The American-Indian War Pre-existing rivalries among both the Native American tribes and confederacies and the European nations led groups from both continents to find war allies among the others against their traditional enemies. When transatlantic civilizations clashed, better technology (including firearms) and the epidemics decimating native populations gave Europeans a substantial military advantage. In 1637, the Pequot War erupted in the Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies. Indian Wars in the English colonies would continue on and off into the American Revolution . In the early 1680s, Philadelphia was established by William Penn in the Delaware Valley , which was home to the Lenni-Lenape nation. Chief Tamanend reputably took part in a peace treaty between the leaders of the Lenni-Lenape nation and the leaders of the Pennsylvania colony held under a large elm tree at Shakamaxon . In the Spanish sphere, many of the Pueblo people harbored hostility toward the Spanish, primarily due to their denigration and prohibition of the traditional religion (the Spanish at the time being staunchly and aggressively Roman Catholic ). The traditional economies of the pueblos were likewise disrupted when they were forced to labor on the Encomienda s of the colonists. However, the Spanish had introduced new farming implements and provided some measure of security against Navajo and Apache raiding parties. As a result, they lived in relative peace with the Spanish following the founding of the Northern New Mexican colony in 1598 . In the 1670s, however, drought swept the region, which not only caused famine among the Pueblo, but also provoked increased attacks from neighboring Hunter-gatherer tribes — attacks against which Spanish soldiers were unable to defend. Unsatisfied with the protective powers of the Spanish crown, the Pueblo Revolted in 1680. In 1692, Spanish control was reasserted, but under much more lenient terms. At the same time, European-introduced diseases were ravaging the natives, greatly decreasing their numbers. It has also been alleged that the introduction of these diseases was exacerbated when soldiers handed out infected blankets. During the trader William Trent had already given two smallpox-infected blankets to Delaware Indians , apparently without Amherst's knowledge, but likely with the knowledge of the Fort Pitt commander Captain Simeon Ecuyer. Flavin, Francis E. (2002). "A pox on Amherst: Smallpox, Sir Jeffery, and a town named Amherst." ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'', Winter 2002, p. 7. Historians have been unable to establish whether or not this plan was implemented, particularly in light of the fact that Smallpox was already present in the region. Despite the lack of historical evidence, the claim that British and American soldiers used germ warfare against North American tribes has remained fairly strong in certain oral traditions and in popular culture.Dixon, ''Never Come to Peace'', 152–55; McConnell, ''A Country Between'', 195–96; Dowd, ''War under Heaven'', 190. For historians who believe the attempt at infection was successful, see Nester, ''Haughty Conquerors"'', 112; Jennings, ''Empire of Fortune'', 447–48. A smallpox epidemic in fact did devastate the Delawares, but it is impossible to know if they were infected by the blankets or through exposure to English soldiers infected with the disease.Flavin 2002, p. 11. Relations during and after the American Revolutionary War 's '' The Death Of General Wolfe ''; West's depiction of this Native American has been considered an idealization in the tradition of the " Noble Savage " (Fryd, 75)]] During the American Revolutionary War , the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River . Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, hoping to use the war to halt further colonial expansion onto Native American land. Many native communities were divided over which side to support in the war. For the Iroquois Confederacy, the American Revolution resulted in civil war. Cherokees split into a neutral (or pro-American) faction and the anti-American Chickamauga s, led by Dragging Canoe . Frontier Warfare During The American Revolution was particularly brutal, and numerous Atrocities were committed by settlers and native tribes. Noncombatants suffered greatly during the war, and villages and food supplies were frequently destroyed during military expeditions. The largest of these expeditions was the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, which destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages in order to neutralize Iroquois raids in Upstate New York . The expedition failed to have the desired effect: Native American activity became even more determined.For Native American in the Revolutionary War, the following books are frequently cited by scholars: For a general overview, see Colin G. Calloway, ''The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995). For the Revolution in Iroquois country, see Barbara Graymont, ''The Iroquois in the American Revolution'' (Syracuse University Press). For the West, see Randolph C. Downes, ''Council Fires on the Upper Ohio: A Narrative of Indian Affairs in the Upper Ohio Valley until 1795'' (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1940). For the South, see James O’Donnell, ''Southern Indians in the American Revolution'' (University of Tennessee Press, 1973). The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty Of Paris (1783) , and had ceded a vast amount of Native American territory to the United States without informing the Native Americans. The United States initially treated the Native Americans who had fought with the British as a conquered people who had lost their land. When this proved impossible to enforce, the policy was abandoned. The United States was eager to expand, and the national government initially sought to do so only by purchasing Native American land in Treaties . The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy. Indians and the American Revolution by Wilcomb E. Washburn. URL accessed February 23, 2006. Removal and reservations tipis, Circa 1900.]] See Also: List of Indian reservations in the United States In the nineteenth century, the incessant Westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Under President Andrew Jackson , Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river. As many as 100,000 Native Americans eventually relocated in the West as a result of this Indian Removal policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary (and many Native Americans did remain in the East), but in practice great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties. Arguably the most egregious violation of the stated intention of the removal policy was the Treaty Of New Echota , which was signed by a dissident faction of Cherokee s, but not the elected leadership. The treaty was brutally enforced by President Andrew Jackson , which resulted in the deaths of an estimated four thousand Cherokees on the Trail Of Tears . The explicit policy of Indian Removal forced or coerced the relocation of major Native American groups in both the Southeast and the Northeast United States, resulting directly and indirectly in the deaths of tens of thousands. The subsequent process of assimilations was no less devastating to Native American peoples. Tribes were generally located to reservations on which they could more easily be separated from traditional life and pushed into European-American society. Some Southern states additionally enacted laws in the 19th century forbidding non-Indian settlement on Indian lands, intending to prevent sympathetic white missionaries from aiding the scattered Indian resistance.see Genocides In History#The Americas At one point, President Jackson told people to kill as many bison as possible in order to cut out the Plains Indian's main source of food. At one point in time there were fewer than 500 bison left in the Great Plains. U.S. History, Steven Kelman; Copyright 1999 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston Conflicts, generally known as " Indian Wars ", broke out between U.S. forces and many different tribes. U.S. government authorities entered numerous treaties during this period, but later abrogated many for various reasons. Well-known military engagements include the Native American victory at the Battle Of Little Bighorn in 1876 and the massacre of Native Americans at Wounded Knee in 1890. This, together with the near-extinction of the American Bison that many tribes had lived on, set about the downturn of Prairie Culture that had developed around the use of the horse for hunting, travel and trading. |
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