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Many religions have monastic elements, including Buddhism , Christianity , Hinduism , Islam , and Jainism , though the expressions differ considerably. Those pursuing a monastic life are usually called '' Monk s'' or ''brothers'' (male), and '' Nun s'' or ''sisters'' (female). Both monks and nuns may also be called ''monastics''. BUDDHIST MONASTICISM See Also: Buddhist monasticism The order of Buddhist monks and original nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering Ascetics , some of whom the Buddha had studied under, and was initially fairly Eremetic in nature. Monks and nuns were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that monks required, and provided shelter for monks when they were needed. After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily Cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy Vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns – the Patimokkha – relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of monks or nuns. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada monks follow around 227 rules. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns). Buddhist monasticism with its tradition of Councils , missions, and being a source of knowledge and literacy spread from India to the Middle East and eventually west, with Christian monasticism following in its footsteps in the areas where Emperor Ashoka sent missions. The Buddhist, the male Bhikkhu assembly, and the female Bhikkhuni assembly. Initially consisting only of males, the Buddhist monastic order grew to include females after the Buddha's step-mother, Mahaprajapati , asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers – providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the monks. In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character. ]]A monk, known as a ''Bhikkhu'' in Pali or Bhikshu in Sanskrit , first ordains as a ''Samanera'' (novice) for a year or more. Novices often ordain at a very young age, but generally no younger than 8. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts , but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is usually given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Nuns follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time- typically five years. The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, CHRISTIAN MONASTICISM See Also: Christian monasticism Monasticism in Christianity is a family of similar traditions that began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, but not mandated as an institution by the Scriptures. The focus of Christian monasticism is on an ideal called the Religious Life , also called the Counsels Of Perfection . The words of Jesus which are the cornerstone for this ideal are "be ye holy like your heavenly Father is holy." Christian Cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the West started in Egypt , which had warm temperatures ideal for living away from society. Originally, all Christian Monks were Hermits ; and especially in the Middle East this continued to be very common until the decline of Syrian Christianity in the late Middle Ages. Saint Anthony The Great is cited by Athanasius as one of these early ' Eremitic monks.' But not everybody is fit for solitary life, and numerous cases of hermits becoming mentally unstable are reported. The need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious; and around 318 Saint Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian Monastery . Soon, similar institutions were establish throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Notable monasteries of the East include:
In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were set by Saint Benedict Of Nursia and St. Augustine. St. Benedict created the Rule Of Saint Benedict at his monastery in Monte Cassino , Italy ( 529 ), which was the seed of Roman Catholic monasticism in general, and of the Order Of Saint Benedict in particular. The Rule of Saint Benedict would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages, spawning many other Religious Orders , and it is still in use today. The Rule of St. Augustine, due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, most chiefly the Canons Regular. Around the 12th century, the Franciscan , Carmelite , Dominican , and Augustinian Mendicant Order s chose to live in city Convent s among the people instead of secluded in monasteries. Today new expressions of Christian monasticism, many of which in France, in addition to the Evangelical Protestant New Monasticism movement. HINDU MONASTICISM In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 112 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5 A Hindu monk is called a s''anyāsī, sādhu'', or ''swāmi''.R.S. McGregor, ''The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary'' (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 0-19-563846-8 A nun is called a ''sanyāsini'', ''sadhavi'', or ''swāmini''. Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs.Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1 It is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide sadhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 112 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5. A sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing. Generally, Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut. A ''Sadhu's'' vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:
:''See also: Dashanami Sampradaya ISLAMIC MONASTICISM While many Muslims do not believe in monasticism (emphasizing the Qur'anic injunction (57:27), in which Allah rebukes monasticism as a man-made practice that is not divinely prescribed), various Sufi orders, or 'tariqas' encourage practices which resemble those of monastic brotherhoods in other faiths. Dervish es — initiates of Sufi orders — believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the Universe . Many of the dervishes are mendicant Ascetic s who have taken the vow of poverty. Though some of them are beggars by choice, others work in common professions; many Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen. All genuine dervish brotherhoods trace their origins from two of the close companions of the Prophet Muhammad , Ali and Abu Bakr . They differ from spiritual brotherhoods of Christianity in that they usually do not live together in a 'monastery' setting; in this sense they do not go 'around' the world. Rather, they go 'through' it; it is actually a stipulation that they have families, and earn an ethical living. Whirling dance, which is the practice of the Mevlevi order in Turkey, is just one of the physical methods to try to reach religious ecstasy (''majdhb'') and connection with Allah. Rif'ai, in their mystical states, apparently skewer themselves without engendering any harm. Other groups include the Shadhili , a gnosis based order who practice the 'hadra' or 'presence', a dance-like breathing exercise involving the repetition of divine names. All genuine brotherhoods and subgroups chant verses of Qur'an , and must follow the Sharia , or Islamic sacred law. Traditionally monks in Islam have been known as Fakirs . This term has also been applied to Hindu monks. JAIN MONASTICISM Jainism has two branches, and each has a slightly different take on monasticism. Feather Broom and a Water Gourd . They also believe that women are unable to obtain Moksha . As a result, of the around 6000 Jain nuns, barely 100 are Digambaras. The Shvetambara s are the other main Jainist sect. Svetambaras, unlike Digambaras, neither believe that ascetics must practice nudity, nor do they believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. Shvetambaras are commonly seen wearing face masks so that they do not accidentally breathe in and kill small creatures. MONASTICISM IN OTHER RELIGIONS Judaism Judaism does not support the monastic ideal of celibacy and poverty, but two thousand years ago taking Nazirite vows was a common feature of the religion. Nazirite Jews abstained from grape products, haircuts, and contact with the dead. However, they did not withdraw from general society, and they were permitted to marry and own property. In Modern Hebrew, the term Nazir is most often used to refer to non-Jewish monastics. Sikhism specifically forbids the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh monk conclaves or brotherhoods. Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect. The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world. They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching. Therefore the elect were probably at least partially monastic. Scientology maintains a "fraternal order" called the Sea Organization or just Sea Org . They work only for the Church Of Scientology and have signed billion year contracts. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church. Ananda Marga has both monks and nuns (i.e. Celibate male and female Acharya s or Missionaries ) as well as a smaller group of family acharyas. The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat. They do have to follow strict celibacy, poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training. Yungdrung Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monasteries exist today, however, the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism. SEE ALSO
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