Laws Of Science

OVERVIEW

Conservative estimates indicate that there are 18 basic physical laws in the universe:
¹

Fluid mechanics

Archimedes’ Principle

Force, mass, and inertia

Kepler’s Three Laws Of Planetary Motion

Newton’s three Laws Of Motion

Newton’s Law Of Universal Gravitation

Heat, energy, and temperature

Newton’s Law Of Cooling

Boyle’s Law

Law of Conservation Of Energy

Joule’s First And Second Law

The four Laws Of Thermodynamics

Quantum mechanics

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Others, such as Roger Penrose with his 2004 book The Road To Reality – a complete guide to the laws of the universe, argues that there are a large number of established laws of science. Some laws, such as Descartes ’ ''first law of nature'', have become obsolete. A rough outline of the basic laws in science is as follows:

CONSERVATION LAWS

Most significant laws in science are Conservation Laws :

Conservation Of Energy law

Conservation Of Momentum law

Conservation Of Angular Momentum law

Charge Conservation law

These fundamental laws follow from homogeneity of Space , Time and Phase (see Emmy Noether Theorem ).

GAS LAWS

Other less significant (non fundamental) laws are the mathematical consequences of the above conservation laws for derivative physical quantities (mathematically defined as Force , Pressure , Temperature , Density , Force Field s, etc):

Boyle's Law ( Pressure and Volume of Ideal Gas )

Charles & Gay-Lussac (gases expand equally with the same change of Temperature )

Ideal Gas Law '' $PV = \ nRT$ ''

EINSTEIN'S LAWS

Einstein

Energy of Photon s - Energy equals Planck's Constant multiplied by the Frequency of the Light .

: $E \ = hf$

Special Relativity

Constancy of the Speed Of Light

Lorentz Transformations - Transformations of Cartesian Coordinates between relatively moving Reference Frame s.

: $x' = (x - vt) / \sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}$

: $y' = y$

: $z' = z$

: $t' = (t - vx/c^2) / \sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}$

Law of Force - Force equals Mass times Acceleration divided by the Square Root of One minus the Ratio Squared of the object's Velocity to the speed of light.

: $F = ma / \sqrt({1 - v^2/c^2})^3$

Mass-energy Equivalence

: $\ E = mc^2$ ( Energy = Mass × Speed Of Light ²)

General Relativity

Energy-momentum (including mass via ''E=mc''²) curves spacetime.

: This is described by the Einstein Field Equations :

: $R_{ab} - {1 \over 2}R\,g_{ab} = {8 \pi G \over c^4} T_{ab}.$

: $R_{ab}$ is the Ricci Tensor , $R$ is the Ricci Scalar , $g_{ab}$ is the Metric Tensor , $T_{ab}$ is the Stress-energy Tensor , and the constant is given in terms of $\pi$ ( Pi ), $c$ (the Speed Of Light ) and $G$ (the Gravitational Constant ).

NEWTON'S LAWS

Newton

Newton's Laws Of Motion - Replaced with Relativity

: ---1. Law Of Inertia

: ---2. $\ F = d(mv)/dt$ Although it implies $\ F = ma$ thats not necessarily true.

: ---3. $F_{ab}=-F_{ba}$ Force of a on b equals the Negative force of b on a, or for every Action there is an equal and opposite Reaction .

Law Of Heat Conduction

General Law Of Gravitation - Gravitational Force between two objects equals the Gravitational Constant times the product of the Masses divided by the Distance between them squared.

: $F_g = G rac{m_1m_2} {r^2}$

:This law is really just the low limit solution of Einstein's Field Equations and is not accurate with modern high precision gravitational measurements.

CHEMICAL LAWS

See Also: Chemical law

Chemical laws are those Laws Of Nature relevant to Chemistry . The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the Law Of Conservation Of Mass , which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary Chemical Reaction . Modern physics shows that it is actually Energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are Related ; a concept which becomes important in Nuclear Chemistry . Conservation Of Energy leads to the important concepts of Equilibrium , Thermodynamics , and Kinetics .

Additional laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. Joseph Proust 's Law Of Definite Composition says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important.

More modern laws of chemistry define the relationship between energy and transformations.

In equilibrium, molecules exist in mixture defined by the transformations possible on the timescale of the equilibrium, and are in a ratio defined by the intrinsic energy of the molecules—the lower the intrinsic energy, the more abundant the molecule.

Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs.

There is a hypothetical intermediate, or ''transition structure'', that corresponds to the structure at the top of the energy barrier. The Hammond-Leffler Postulate states that this structure looks most similar to the product or starting material which has intrinsic energy closest to that of the energy barrier. Stabilizing this hypothetical intermediate through chemical interaction is one way to achieve Catalysis .

All chemical processes are reversible (law of Microscopic Reversibility ) although some processes have such an energy bias, they are essentially irreversible.

ELECTROMAGNETIC LAWS

Coulomb's Law - Force between any two Charges is equal to the Absolute Value of the multiple of the charges divided by 4 Pi times the Vacuum Permittivity times the Distance squared between the two charges.

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:: <math> H(t) \left \psi (t) Ight Angle

i \hbar {\partial\over\partial t} \left \psi (t) ight angle</math>

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