Information AboutJesus Christ |
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Mosaic in Ravenna portrays Jesus dressed as a Greco-Roman priest and king. He appears as the Pantokrator enthroned as in the Book Of Revelation , donning regal Tyrian Purple , gesturing a Benediction , with a Sun Cross Halo behind his head.]] Jesus (8–2 BC/BCE to 29–36 ''', is the central figure of Christianity . He is also called '''Jesus Christ''', where " Christ " is a title derived from the Greek ''christós'', meaning the "Anointed One," which corresponds to the Hebrew-derived " Messiah ". The name "Jesus" is an Anglicization of the Greek Ίησους ('''''Iēsous'''''), itself a Hellenization of the Hebrew יהושע ('''''Yehoshua''''') or Hebrew- Aramaic ישוע ('''''Yeshua'''''), meaning " YHWH is salvation". The main sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the ; G.A. Wells . '' The Jesus Legend '', Chicago: Open Court, 1996, p xii. Christian Views Of Jesus (see also Christology ) center on the belief that Jesus is the Messiah whose coming was Promised In The Old Testament and that he was Resurrected after his crucifixion. Christians predominantly believe that Jesus is God Incarnate , who came to provide Salvation and reconciliation with God . Nontrinitarian Christians profess various other interpretations regarding his divinity (see Below ). Other Christian beliefs include Jesus' Virgin Birth , performance of Miracles , fulfillment of Biblical Prophecy , Ascension into Heaven , and future Second Coming . In ''''') is considered one of God's most beloved and important Prophets , a bringer of divine scripture, a worker of miracles, and the Messiah. Muslim s, however, do not share the Christian belief in the crucifixion or Divinity Of Jesus . Muslims believe that Jesus' crucifixion was a divine illusion and that he Ascended Bodily To Heaven . Most Muslims also believe that he will Return To The Earth in the company of the Mahdi once the earth has become full of sin and injustice at the time of the arrival of Islam's Antichrist -like Dajjal . CHRONOLOGY See Also: Chronology of Jesus The most detailed accounts of Jesus' birth are contained in the Gospel Of Matthew (probably written between 65 and 90 AD/CE), Darrell L. Bock , ''Jesus According to Scripture'', pp. 29–30, gives a ''c.'' 60–70 date; L. Michael White, ''From Jesus to Christianity'', p. 244, gives ''c.'' 80–90. and the Gospel Of Luke (probably written between 65 and 100 AD/CE).Bock, ''ibid.'', p. 38, gives ''c.'' 62–70; White, ''ibid.'', p. 252, gives ''c.'' 90–100. Scholars debate over the details of Jesus' birth, and few claim to know the exact year or date of his birth or death. The nativity accounts in the in an attempt to replace the Roman festival of Saturnalia (or more specifically, the birthday of the Roman god Sol Invictus ). In the 247th year during the '' (which translates as "in the year of Lord "). The system was created in the then current year 532, and almost two centuries later it won acceptance and became the established Calendar in Western civilization. It is hard to date Jesus' birth because some sources are now gone and over 1900 years have passed since the Gospels were written; however, based on a Lunar Eclipse that the first-century historian Josephus reported shortly before the death of Herod The Great (who plays a role in Matthew's account), as well as a more accurate understanding of the succession of Roman Emperors, Jesus' birth would have been before the year 3 BC/BCE. The Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew both place Jesus' birth under the reign of Herod The Great . Luke similarly describes Jesus' birth as occurring during the Roman governorship of Quirinius , and involving the First Census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea . Josephus places the governorship of Quirinius, and a census, in 6 AD/CE (which Luke refers to in ), long after the death of Herod the Great in 4 BC/BCE. Hence, debate has centered over whether or not the sources can be reconciled by asserting a prior governorship of Quirinius in Syria, or if an earlier census was conducted and, if not, which source to consider in error.Josephus, Antiquities 17.342–4 The date of Jesus' death is also unclear. The Gospel Of John depicts the crucifixion as directly before the Passover festival on Friday 14 Nisan (called the Quartodeciman ), whereas the Synoptic Gospels (except for ) describe Jesus' Last Supper as the Passover meal on Friday 15 Nisan; however, some scholars hold that the synoptic account is harmonious with the account in John.See Leon Morris , ''The Gospel According to John, Revised'', pp. 284–295, for a discussion of several alternate theories with references. Further, the Jews followed a Lunisolar Calendar with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. According to John P. Meier 's ''A Marginal Jew'', which takes into consideration the Procurator ship of Pontius Pilate and the dates of the Passover in those years, Jesus' death was probably on April 7 , 30 AD/CE or April 3 , 33 AD/CE.Meier, p.1:402 LIFE AND TEACHINGS, AS TOLD IN THE GOSPELS See Also: New Testament view on Jesus' life The Bible 's four Canonical Gospel s are the main sources for the traditional Christian biography of Jesus' life. Christian scholars generally believe the gospel accounts to be Historically Accurate ; critical scholars, on the other hand, debate the extent of their historicity. Genealogy and family See Also: Genealogy of Jesus Desposyni ]] Of the four gospels, only Matthew and Luke give accounts of Jesus' genealogy. The accounts in the two gospels are substantially different, and various theories have been proposed to explain the discrepancies.Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–500; I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158; Both accounts, however, trace his line back to King David and from there to Abraham . These lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ between David and Joseph. Matthew starts with Solomon and proceeds through the kings of Judah to the last king, Jeconiah . After Jeconiah, the line of kings terminated when Babylon Conquered Judah . Thus, Matthew shows that Jesus is the legal heir to the throne of Israel . Luke's genealogy is longer than Matthew's; it goes back to Adam and provides more names between David and Jesus. Joseph, husband of ''', 2007 The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians tell of Jesus' relatives, including what may have been brothers and sisters., , and The Greek word ''adelphos'' in these verses, often translated as ''brother'', can refer to any familial relation, and most Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians translate the word as ''kinsman'' or ''cousin'' in this context (see Perpetual Virginity Of Mary ). Luke also mentions that Elizabeth , mother of John the Baptist, was a "cousin" or "relative" of Mary (), which would make John a distant cousin of Jesus. Nativity and early life See Also: Annunciation Nativity of Jesus Child Jesus , 17th century]] According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea to Mary, a virgin, by a miracle of the Holy Spirit . The Gospel of Luke gives an account of the Angel Gabriel visiting Mary to tell her that she was chosen to bear the Son Of God (). According to Luke, an order of Caesar Augustus had forced Mary and Joseph to leave their homes in Nazareth and come to the home of Joseph's ancestors, the house of David , for the Census Of Quirinius . After Jesus' birth, the couple was forced to use a Manger in place of a crib because there was no room for them in the town's inn (). According to Luke, an angel announced Jesus' birth to shepherds who came to see the newborn child and who subsequently publicized what they had witnessed throughout the area (see The First Noël ). Matthew tells of the " Wise Men " or " Magi " who brought gifts to the infant Jesus after following a star which they believed was a sign that the King Of The Jews had been born (). Jesus' childhood home is identified as the town of (). Only Luke tells that Jesus was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding In The Temple () is the only event between Jesus' infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical Gospels. According to Luke, Jesus was "about thirty years of age" when he was baptized (). In Mark, Jesus is called a carpenter. Matthew says he was a carpenter's son, suggesting to some that Jesus may have spent some of his first 30 years practicing carpentry with his father (, ). Baptism and Temptation See Also: Baptism of Jesus Temptation of Jesus John the Baptist , 19th c.]] All three synoptic Gospels describe the Baptism Of Jesus by John The Baptist , an event which Biblical scholars describe as the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. According to these accounts, Jesus came to the Jordan River where John the Baptist had been preaching and baptizing people in the crowd. Matthew describes John as initially hesitant to comply with Jesus' request for John to baptize him, stating that it was Jesus who should baptize him. Jesus persisted, "It is proper for us to do this to fulfill all righteousness" (). After Jesus was baptized and rose from the water, Mark states Jesus "saw the heavens parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove. Then a voice came from heaven saying: 'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased'" (). The Gospel of John doesn't include the baptism but does attest that Jesus is the very one about whom John the Baptist had been preaching — the Son of God. Following his baptism, Jesus was led into the desert by God where he Fasted for forty days and forty nights (). During this time, the Devil appeared to him and tempted Jesus three times. Each time, Jesus refused each temptation with a quote of Scripture from the Book Of Deuteronomy . Having failed, the devil departed and angels came and brought nourishment to Jesus (, , ). Ministry See Also: Ministry of Jesus Sermon on the Mount Sermon on the Plain Twelve Apostles Transfiguration of Jesus , 19th c.]] The Gospels state that Jesus, as Messiah, was sent to "give his life as a ransom for many" and "preach the good news of the Kingdom Of God .", , . Over the course of his ministry, Jesus is said to have Performed Various Miracles , including healings, Exorcism s, Walking On Water , Turning Water Into Wine , and raising several people, such as Lazarus , from the dead (, , and ). The Gospel of John describes three different Passover feasts over the course of Jesus' ministry. This implies that Jesus preached for a period of three years, although some interpretations of the Synoptic Gospels suggest a span of only one year."The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible NIV," published December 1999, B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co., Inc.; William Adler & Paul Tuffin, "The Chronography of George Synkellos: A Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation," Oxford University Press (2002), p. 466 The focus of his ministry was toward his closest adherents, the Twelve Apostles , though many of his followers were considered Disciples . The Twelve Apostles and others closest to Jesus were all Jews as shown by Jesus’ statement that his mission is directed only to those of the house of Israel () and by the fact that only after the death of Jesus did the apostles agree with Paul that the teaching of the gospel could be extended to uncircumcised Gentiles (, ). Jesus led an Apocalyptic following. He preached that the End Of The Current World would come unexpectedly, and that he would return to judge the world, especially according to How They Treated The Vulnerable ; for this reason, he called on his followers to be ever alert and faithful. Jesus also taught that repentance was necessary to escape hell, and promised to give those who believe in him eternal life (). At the height of his ministry, Jesus attracted huge crowds numbering in the thousands, primarily in the areas of Galilee and Perea (in modern-day Israel and Jordan respectively).In ''John'', Jesus' ministry takes place in and around Jerusalem. Some of Jesus' most famous teachings come from the Sermon On The Mount , which contained the Beatitudes and the Lord's Prayer . Jesus often employed Parables , such as the Parable Of The Prodigal Son and the Parable Of The Sower . His teachings encouraged unconditional self-sacrificing God-like Love for God and for all people. During his sermons, he preached about service and humility, the forgiveness of sin, faith, Turning The Other Cheek , Love For One's Enemies as well as friends, and the need to follow the spirit of The Law in addition to the letter.''Sermon on the Mount'': ; ''Prodigal Son'': ; ''Parable of the Sower'': ; ''Agape'': . Jesus often met with society's outcasts, such as the Publicani (Imperial tax collectors who were despised for extorting money), including the apostle Matthew ; when the Pharisees objected to Jesus' meeting with sinners rather than the righteous, Jesus replied that it was the sick who need a physician, not the healthy (). According to Luke and John, Jesus also made efforts to extend his ministry to the Samaritans , who followed A Different Form of the Israelite religion. This is reflected in his preaching to the Samaritans of Sychar , resulting in their conversion (). According to the synoptic gospels, Jesus led three of His Apostles — Peter , John , and James — to the top of a mountain to pray. While there, he was Transfigured before them, his face shining like the sun and his clothes brilliant white; Elijah and Moses appeared adjacent to him. A bright cloud overshadowed them, and a voice from the sky said, "This is my beloved son, with whom I am well pleased.", , The gospels also state that toward the end of his ministry, Jesus began to warn his disciples of his future death and resurrection (). Arrest, trial, and death See Also: Jesus and the Money Changers Last Supper Arrest of Jesus Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus Death of Jesus (Behold the Man!)'', In the account given by the synoptic gospels, Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival where a large crowd came to meet him, shouting, " of me" (). Following the supper, Jesus and his disciples went to pray in the Garden Of Gethsemane . While in the Garden, Jesus was Arrested by temple guards on the orders of the Sanhedrin and the high priest, Caiaphas (, ). The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, as Jesus was popular with the people at large (). Judas Iscariot , one of his apostles, betrayed Jesus by identifying him to the guards with A Kiss . Simon Peter, another one of Jesus' apostles, used a sword to attack one of Jesus' captors, cutting off his ear, which, according to Luke, Jesus immediately healed miraculously.The apostle is identified as Simon Peter in ; the healing of the ear is found in . Jesus rebuked the apostle, stating "all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword" (). After his arrest, Jesus' apostles went into hiding. '', Diego Velázquez , 17th c.]] During the Sanhedrin Trial Of Jesus , the high priests and elders asked Jesus, "Are you the Son Of God ?," and after he replied, "You say that I am," they condemned Jesus for Blasphemy (). The high priests then turned him over to the Roman Procurator Pontius Pilate , based on an accusation of Sedition for claiming to be King of the Jews.; . When Jesus came before Pilate, Pilate asked him, "Are you the king of the Jews?" to which he replied, "It is as you say." According to the Gospels, Pilate personally felt that Jesus was not guilty of any crime against the Romans, and since there was a custom at Passover for the Roman governor to free a prisoner (a custom not recorded outside the Gospels), Pilate offered the crowd a choice between Jesus of Nazareth and an insurrectionist named Barabbas . The crowd chose to have Barabbas freed and Jesus crucified. Pilate washed his hands to indicate that he was innocent of the injustice of the decision (). According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon at Calvary , which was also called Golgotha. The wealthy Judean Joseph Of Arimathea , a member of the Sanhedrin according to Mark and Luke, received Pilate's permission to take possession of Jesus' body, placing it in a tomb.; . According to John, Joseph was aided by Nicodemus , who joined him to help bury Jesus, and who appears in other parts of John's gospel (). The three Synoptic Gospels tell of the darkening of the sky from twelve until three that afternoon; Matthew also mentions an Earthquake (). Resurrection and Ascension See Also: Harrowing of Hell Resurrection of Jesus Resurrection appearances of Jesus Great Commission Ascension Second Coming , 16th c.: Resurrection Of Jesus ]] According to the Gospels, Jesus Rose From The Dead on the third day after his Crucifixion .; ; ; ; ; The Gospel of Matthew states that an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to Mary Magdelene and "another Mary" who had arrived to Anoint the body (). According to Luke there were two angels (), and according to Mark there was a youth dressed in white (). Mark states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to Mary Magdalene (). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name (). The Acts Of The Apostles state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days. Hours after his resurrection, he appeared to two travelers on the road to Emmaus (). To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection (). Although his own ministry had been specifically to Jews, Jesus is said to have sent his apostles to the Gentiles with the Great Commission and Ascended to heaven while a cloud concealed him from their sight. According to Acts, Paul Of Tarsus had a vision of Jesus during his Road To Damascus experience. Jesus promised to Come Again to fulfill the remainder of Messianic Prophecy .''Ministering to Israel'': ; ''ascension'': ; ; ''Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus'': , ; ; ''Second coming'': Fulfillment of prophecy See Also: Messianic prophecy in Christianity According to the Gospels, Jesus' birth, life, death, and resurrection fulfilled many prophecies found in the Hebrew Bible. See, for example, the ), and the Suffering Servant . HISTORICITY See Also: Historicity of Jesus Scholars have used the Historical Method to develop probable reconstructions of Jesus' life. Some scholars draw a distinction between Jesus as reconstructed through historical methods and Jesus as understood through a theological point of view, while other scholars hold that a Theological Jesus represents a historical figure.See, for an example of the latter, Pope Benedict XVI , ''Jesus of Nazareth''. Doubleday, 2007. ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7 The main sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Biblical scholars and classical historians generally accept the historical existence of Jesus, with claims against existence regarded as "effectively refuted"."The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted." - Robert E. Van Voorst, ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 16. Reconstructing a historical Jesus See Also: Historical Jesus Cultural and historical background of Jesus Secular historians generally describe Jesus as an itinerant preacher and leader of a religious movement within Judaism.Harrison, John B. and Richard E. Sullivan. A short history of Western civilization. New York: Knopf. 1975. According to historical reconstruction, Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, taught in parables and aphorisms, challenged pious traditions, legalism and social hierarchy, and was crucified by the Romans. Historians are divided over whether Jesus led a career of healing and exorcism, preached the end of the world was imminent, and saw his crucifixion as inevitable. Most scholars agree the Gospel of Mark was written about the time of the destruction of , ''Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3)'' Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4. and in terms of conflicts among Jews in the context of Roman occupation. Ties to religious groups The Gospels record that Jesus was a , which had been founded by the eminent Tanna , Hillel The Elder , and the House Of Shammai . Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce (). Neusner, Jacob ''A Rabbi Talks With Jesus,'' McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–7735–2046–5. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel. Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings ( Babylonian Talmud , Shabbat 31a) concerning the Greatest Commandment () and the Golden Rule (). Other scholars theorize that Jesus was an '' and in the Damascus Document of the Dead Sea Scrolls, respectively. Still other scholars hypothesize that Jesus led a new Apocalyptic sect, possibly related to John The Baptist ,The Gospel accounts show both John the Baptist and Jesus teaching repentance and the coming Kingdom of God. Still other scholars conjecture that Jesus was a failed apocalyptic prophet See . This is distinct from an earlier commission Jesus gave to the Twelve Apostles , limited to "the lost sheep of the house of Israel" and specifically excluding the Gentiles or Samaritans (). Names and titles See Also: Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament According to most historians, Jesus probably lived in , 2007 .'' Since most scholars hold that Jesus was an Aramaic-speaking Jew living in Galilee around 30 AD/CE, it is highly improbable that he had a Greek personal name. Further examination of the Septuagint finds that the Greek, in turn, is a transliteration of the Hebrew/ Aramaic Yeshua (ישוע) (''Yeshua'' — he will save) a contraction of Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושוע ''Yeho'' — Yahweh {Link without Title} ''shua`'' — help/salvation, usually Romanized as ''Joshua''). As a result, scholars believe that one of these was most likely the name that Jesus was known by during his lifetime by his peers.Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. p. 558; John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew''. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205–7; '' Christ '' (which is a title and not a part of his name) is an Anglicization of the Greek term for '' Messiah '', and literally means "anointed one." Historians have debated what this title might have meant at the time Jesus lived; some historians have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the first century quite different from those meanings ascribed today.Vermes, "Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels" The titles "Divine," " Son Of God ," "God," "God from God," "Lord," "Redeemer," "Liberator," and "Saviour of the World" were collectively applied to Octavian , who became Caesar Augustus after defeating Mark Antony at the Battle Of Actium in 31 BC/BCE John Dominic Crossan cites the adoption of them by the early Christians to apply to Jesus as denying them of Caesar the Augustus. "They were taking the identity of the Roman emperor and giving it to a Jewish peasant. Either that was a peculiar joke and a very low lampoon, or it was what the Romans called ''majistas'' and we call high treason. " Crossan, John Dominic, God and Empire, 2007, p. 28 Sources on Jesus' life See Also: Historicity of Jesus Most Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by Oral Tradition , and were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. The earliest Extant Text s which refer to Jesus are Paul's letters, which are usually dated from the mid-1st century. Paul wrote that he only saw Jesus in visions, but that they were divine Revelation s and hence authoritative (). The earliest extant texts describing Jesus in any detail were the four Gospel s. These texts, being part of the Biblical Canon , have received much more analysis and acceptance from Christian sources than other possible sources for information on Jesus. Many other early Christian texts detail events in Jesus' life and teachings, though they were not included when The Bible Was Canonized due to a belief that they were Pseudepigraphical , not inspired, or written too long after his death, while others were suppressed because they contradicted Christian Orthodoxy . It took several centuries before the list of what was and was not part of the Bible became finally fixed, and for much of the early period the Book Of Revelation was not included while works like The Shepherd Of Hermas were. Books that were not included are known as the New Testament Apocrypha . These include the '' Gospel Of Thomas '', a collection of '' Logia '' — phrases and sayings attributed to Jesus without a narrative framework, only rediscovered in the 20th century. Other important apocryphal works that had a heavy influence in forming traditional Christian beliefs include the Apocalypse Of Peter , Protevangelium Of James , Infancy Gospel Of Thomas , and Acts Of Peter . A number of Christian traditions (such as Veronica's Veil and the Assumption Of Mary ) are found not in the canonical gospels but in these and other apocryphal works. Possible earlier texts Some texts with even earlier historical or mythological information on Jesus are speculated to have existed prior to the Gospels,Bettenson, Henry and Maunder, Chris. ''Documents of the Christian Church'' (3rd edition), Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0–19–288071–3 though none have been found. Based on the , 2007 . probably played a strong role in initially passing down stories of Jesus, and may have inspired some of the Synoptic Gospels. Specifically, many scholars believe that the Q document and the Gospel of Mark were the , 2007 . There are also early non-canonical gospels which may predate the canonical Gospels, although few surviving fragments have been found. Among these are the Unknown Berlin Gospel , the Oxyrhynchus Gospels , the Egerton Gospel , the Fayyum Fragment , the Dialogue Of The Saviour , the Gospel Of The Ebionites , the Gospel Of The Hebrews , and the Gospel Of The Nazarenes .Miller, Robert J. ''ed.'' (1994) ''The Complete Gospels: Annotated Scholars Version''. Polebridge Pres: Sonoma, CA. pp. 1–5. Questions of reliability As a result of perhaps a several-decade time gap between events and the writing of the Gospels where they are described, the accuracy of early texts describing the details of Jesus' life have been disputed by various parties. The authors of the Gospels are traditionally thought to have been witnesses to the events included. After the original oral stories were written down in Greek, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. This is not unique to the Bible — other documents of antiquity have been scrutinized for gaps between the date of an event and the date it was written. Several historians claim unreliability of the gospel accounts often as biased and second-hand, and frequently dates from several decades after the events described. This is in sharp contrast to the earliest biographies for Alexander the Great written by Arrian and Plutarch more than four hundred years after Alexander's death in 323 BC/BCE, yet historians consider them to be generally trustworthy. For example, Paul Barnett pointed out that "scholars of Ancient History have always recognized the ' Subjectivity ' factor in their available sources" and "have so few sources available compared to their modern counterparts that they will gladly seize whatever scraps of information that are at hand." He noted that Modern History and Ancient History are two separate disciplines, with differing methods of analysis and interpretation. Barnett, Paul , "Is the New Testament History?," p.1. The , 2007 . others have come to view the texts as cultural and literary documents, generally regarding them as part of the genre of literature called Hagiography , an account of a holy person regarded as representing a moral and divine ideal. Hagiography has as its primary aim the glorification of the religion itself and of the example set by the perfect holy person represented as its central focus. The views of intellectuals who entirely reject Jesus' historicity are summarized in the chapter on Jesus in Will Durant 's ''Caesar and Christ''. It is based on a reputed scarcity of eyewitness, a lack of direct archaeological evidence, the failure of certain ancient works to mention Jesus, and alleged similarities between early Christianity and contemporary mythology.Durant 1944:553–7 Those who have a , Doubleday: 1991. vol 1: p. 168–171. Possible external influence See Also: Historicity of Jesus Historical Jesus Jesus Christ and comparative mythology Cultural and historical background of Jesus Christianity and Buddhism mosaic (3rd c.): Sol Invictus ]] Some scholars suggest that the gospel accounts of Jesus have little or no historical basis. They see similarities between stories about Jesus and older myths of and C.S. Lewis , suggest that the myths were created by ancient pagans who took prophetic attributes of the Messiah as taught in the Pentateuch and Prophets applied them to their particular deity. Still other researchers disagree with the view that the stories about Jesus were adapted from older myths. In 1962, Judaic scholar Samuel Sandmel cautioned against this practice and adapted the term "Parallelomania" to describe it. "We might for our purposes define parallelomania as that extravagance among scholars which first overdoes the supposed similarity in passages and then proceeds to describe source and derivation as if implying a literary connection flowing in an inevitable or predetermined direction."Sandmel, Samuel. "Parallelomania," ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' 1 (Mar. 1962) In the book ''Reinventing Jesus'', the authors put forth the position that "Only after 100 (AD/CE) did the mysteries begin to look very much like Christianity, precisely because their existence was threatened by this new religion. They had to compete to survive."Komoszewski et al (2006), ''Reinventing Jesus'', Kregel, p.237 Other scholars, such as , ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'', Scribner, 1995 p. 199. ISBN 0–684–81867–1 RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES See Also: Religious perspectives on Jesus Christian views See Also: Christian views of Jesus Though Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to describe a general majority Christian view by examining the similarities between Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and certain Protestant doctrines found in their Catechetical or Confessional texts.This section draws on a number of sources to determine the doctrines of these groups, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord, and others. This view, given below as the Principal view, does not encompass all groups which describe themselves as Christian, with other views immediately following. Principal view , 1580.]] Christians predominately profess that Jesus is the Messiah (Greek: ''Christos''; English: Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament,''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §436–40; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 2; Irenaeus '',''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §606–618; Council of Trent (1547) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum'' (1965) §1529; which had Entered Human History through the Sin Of Adam .''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 9; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 2; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 8; ; . They profess Jesus to be the only was at hand,''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §541–546 and established the Christian Church , which is the seed of the kingdom, into which Jesus calls the poor in spirit. Apostle's Creed ; Catechism Of The Catholic Church §551–553; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 8; Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed ; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9; Leo the Great, ''Sermo'' 4.3 in ''Patrologia Latina'' ed. J. P. Migne (Paris, 1841–1855); Jesus' actions at the Last Supper , where he instituted the Eucharist , are understood as central to communion with God and remembrance of Jesus' sacrifice.''Catechism of the Catholic Church"§1322–1419; Martin Luther , ''Augsburg Confession'', article 10; Luther's Small Catechism : ''the Sacrament of the Altar'' Christians also predominately profess that Jesus suffered death by Crucifixion , Apostle's Creed ; Nicene Creed ; Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed ; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9 Descended Into Hell (variously understood as either the place of eternal punishment or place of the dead),' Apostle's Creed ; Catechism Of The Catholic Church §632–635; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 3; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; Council of Rome (745) in Denzinger-Schönmetzer, ''Enchiridion Symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum'' (1965) §587; Benedict XII, ''Cum dudum'' (1341) in ibid. §1011; Clement VI, ''Super quibusdam'' (1351) in ibid. §1077; Council of Toledo IV (625) in ibid. §485; and rose bodily from the dead in the definitive miracle that foreshadows the Resurrection of humanity at the end of time,''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' §638–655; Byzantine Liturgy, ''Troparion'' of Easter; ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', article 4 and 17; ''Augsburg Confession'', article 3; ''Second Helvetic Confession'', chapter 9. when Christ will come again to Judge The Living And The Dead , resulting in election to Heaven or damnation to Hell. Apostle's Creed ; Nicene Creed , Catechism Of The Catholic Church §668–675, 678–679; Luther's Small Catechism commentary on Apostle's Creed ; The nature of Jesus was theologically articulated and refined by a series of seven and Peter Kreeft (1988): "The Divinity of Jesus Christ" from ''Fundamentals of the Faith''. Ignatius Press. Alternative views See Also: Nontrinitarianism Current religious groups that do not accept the doctrine of the Trinity include the The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) , Jehovah's Witnesses and the Christadelphians . Non-Trinitarian groups from history included Unitarians , and from antiquity, Arians . = Mormons records that the resurrected Jesus visited and taught some of the inhabitants of the early Americas after he appeared to his apostles in Jerusalem. Mormons also believe that an Apostasy occurred after the death of Christ and his apostles. They believe that Christ and the Heavenly Father appeared to Joseph Smith in 1820 as part of a series of heavenly visits to restore the fullness of the gospel of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus (not the Father) is the same as Jehovah or Yahweh of the Old Testament . ''See Jesus In The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-day Saints .'' = Jehovah's Witnesses , 2007 = Christadelphians Christadelphians believe that Jesus is literally God's son, hence the Biblical title ''son of God'',1 not ''God the Son''. They believe that Jesus was in God's plan right from the beginning of creation,2 but that he came into existence at his birth.3 Quoting Biblical passages such as , they maintain that Jesus was fully human, and that Jesus' total humanity was vital in saving people from their sins. This, Christadelphians believe, would not have been possible had Jesus actually been God.4 They believe that Jesus is now in heaven, at God's right hand, waiting to return to the Earth to establish God's kingdom here forever.5 = Other alternative views Others believe that the one God, who revealed himself in the Old Testament as Jehovah, came to earth, taking on the human form of Jesus Christ. They believe Jesus is Jehovah, is the Holy Spirit, and is the one Person who is God. Examples of such churches today are Oneness Pentecostals and the New Church . Other early views Various Early Christian groups and theologians held differing views of Jesus. The Ebionites , an early Jewish Christian community, believed that Jesus was the last of the Prophets and the Messiah . They believed that Jesus was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, and thus they rejected the Virgin Birth. The Ebionites were Adoptionists , believing that Jesus was not divine, but became the Son Of God at his baptism. They rejected the Epistles Of Paul , believing that Jesus kept the Mosaic Law perfectly and wanted his followers to do the same. However, they felt that Jesus' crucifixion was the ultimate sacrifice, and thus Animal Sacrifice s were no longer necessary. Therefore, some Ebionites were Vegetarian and considered both Jesus and John The Baptist to have been vegetarians.Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 102. In , other Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of Christ during his baptism.Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 124–125. Many Gnostics believed that Christ was an Aeon sent by A Higher Deity than the evil Demiurge who created the material world. Some Gnostics believed that Christ had a Syzygy named Sophia . The Gnostics tended to Interpret The Books That Were Included In The New Testament as Allegory , and some Gnostics interpreted Jesus himself as an allegory. The Gnostics also used a number of Other Texts that did not become part of the New Testament canon. , 2007 Seeing a stark contrast between the vengeful God of the Old Testament and the loving God of Jesus, Marcion came to the conclusion that the Jewish God and Jesus were two separate deities. Like some Gnostics, Marcionites saw the Jewish God as the evil creator of the world, and Jesus as the savior from the material world. They also believed Jesus was not human, but instead a completely divine spiritual being whose material body, and thus his crucifixion and death, were Divine Illusions . Marcion was the first known early Christian to have created a Canon , which consisted of ten Pauline Epistles , and A Version of the Gospel Of Luke (possibly without the first two chapters that are in modern versions, and without Jewish references),Ehrman, Bart D. ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 103, p. 104–105, p.108 and his treatise on the ''Antithesis'' between the Old and New Testaments. Marcionism was declared a Heresy by proto-orthodox Christianity. Montanists in the 2nd Century and Sabellius in the 3rd Century taught that the Trinity represented not three persons but a single person in three "modes." Islamic views See Also: Islamic views of Jesus In , 2007 though some Islamic scholars regard these traditions as unreliable and false., 2007 6 }} vol.2, p.243 As in the Christian nativity accounts, the 7th-century , 2007 , 2007 Muslims also do not believe in Jesus' sacrificial role, and the Qur'an, as commonly understood, states that Jesus was not killed on the cross. Islam also does not accept any human sacrifice for sin.Qu'ran Regarding the crucifixion, the Qur'an is against the Jews who claimed "we slew the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, the Messenger of God," and categorically states that "yet they did not slay him, neither crucified him, only a likeness of that was shown to them."Qur'an Encyclopedia of Islam, Jesus article Some muslims writers like Ahmed Deedat have elaborated the Quranic verse in the light of the Bible "CRUCIFIXION OR CRUCI-FICTION" , By Ahmed Deedat. However, the Muslim tradition completes the statement of the Qur'an: Some traditions say Christ was replaced by a double, and according to others it was Simon of Cyrene or one of the Apostles (Judas). The denial of crucifixion is viewed as Jesus's faith triumph over his executioners forces of evil and adversity . However certain Muslim scholars and some Ismaili commentators have interpreted the relevant verse differently: "the Jews intended to destroy the person of Jesus completely; in fact, they crucified only his nasut, his lahut remained alive" or that "The Qur'an is not here speaking about a man, righteous and wronged though he may be, but about the Word of God who was sent to earth and returned to God. Thus the denial of killing of Jesus is a denial of the power of men to vanquish and destroy the divine Word, which is for ever victorious." Mahmoud Ayoub, ''The death of Jesus: Reality or Delusion'', Journal of the Muslim World 70 (1980) pp. 91–121 Ahmadiyya views The The founder of the movement. Judaism's view See Also: Judaism's view of Jesus , Retrieved April 15 , 2007 The '' Mishneh Torah '' (an authoritative work of Jewish Law ) states: : Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be , Retrieved April 15 , 2007 , 2007 According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets after , Retrieved April 15 , 2007 Buddhist views Buddhists' views of Jesus differ, since Jesus is not mentioned in any Buddhist text. Some , 2007 . Hindu views , 2007 . Bahá'í views The Bahá'í Faith considers Jesus, along with Muhammad , the Buddha , Krishna , and Zoroaster , and other messengers of the great religions of the world to be Manifestations Of God (or Prophet s), with both human and divine stations.7 In their divine station Bahá'ís view them in essential unity with each other and with God, and in their human station they view them as distinct individuals. Thus, in the Bahá'í view, Jesus incarnates God's attributes, perfectly reflecting and expressing them. However, the Bahá'í view rejects the belief that the essence of God was perfectly or completely contained in Jesus or any other human body, since Bahá'í Scripture emphasizes the transcendence of the essence of God. Jesus is believed to be the "Son of God" though not literally a biological son. The title "Son of God" in the Bahá'í view is seen as entirely spiritual and shows the close relationship between him and God.Letter by Shoghi Effendi on November 29 , 1937 , published in 8 Bahá'ís accept Jesus as the Messiah foretold in the Jewish Scriptures. They believe though that their messenger, Baha'u'llah is the symbolic return of Christ expected during the last days.9 In the Bahá'í view religion is Progressively Revealed by God through messengers/prophets, and the messengers from God are all the spiritual return of the messengers before them. Mandaean views , who is considered a great teacher in Mandaeanism. Other views The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. Some New Age practitioners (such as the creators of A Course In Miracles ) claim to go so far as to trance- Channel his spirit. However, the New Age movement generally teaches that Christhood is something that all may attain. Theosophists , from whom many New Age teachings originated (a Theosophist named Alice A. Bailey invented the term ''New Age''), refer to Jesus of Nazareth as the Master Jesus and believe he had previous Incarnations and is presently one of the Cosmic Masters Of The Ancient Wisdom ( Deities responsible for governing the Planet Earth ). Many writers emphasize Jesus' moral teachings. , one of the Founding Fathers and a Deist , created the Jefferson Bible entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity or any of the other supernatural aspects of the Bible . Philosopher and atheist , 2007 Friedrich Nietzsche saw Socrates and Jesus as foundational to Western culture and criticized them both. He considered Jesus' concern for the weak to be a reversal of noble morality and accused Christianity of spreading the concept of equal rights for all, which he opposed.Nietzsche, Friedrich. "The Anti-Christ" , sections 54, 43 LEGACY '', According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible , the theme of Jesus' teachings was that of Repentance , Unconditional Love , Forgiveness of Sin , Grace , and the coming of the Kingdom Of God .Sniegocki, John. " Review of Joseph GRASSI, ''Peace on Earth: Roots and Practices from Luke's Gospel'', " Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2004 (repentance, forgiveness); Bock, Darrell L. "Major Themes of Jesus' life," (coming of the Kingdom of God); Brussat, Frederic and Mary Ann. " Review of ''If Grace Is So Amazing, Why Don't We Like It?,'' " (grace); Hughes, F. A. "Grace and Truth," STEM publishing 1972 (grace) Jesus extensively trained disciples who, after his death, spread his teachings. Within a few decades his followers comprised a religion clearly distinct from Judaism . Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire under a version known as Nicene Christianity and became the State Religion under Constantine The Great . Over the centuries, it spread to most of Europe , and around the world. Jesus has been Drawn, Painted, Sculpted and Portrayed On Stage And In Films in many different ways, both serious and Humorous . The figure of Jesus features prominently in Art and Literature . A number of popular novels, such as '' The Da Vinci Code '', have also portrayed various ideas about Jesus, and a number of films, such as '' The Passion Of The Christ '', have portrayed his life, death, and resurrection. Many of the sayings attributed to Jesus have become part of the culture of Western Civilization . There are many items purported to be Relics Of Jesus , of which the most famous are the Shroud Of Turin and the Sudarium Of Oviedo . Other legacies include a view of God as more lovingly parental, merciful, and more forgiving, and the growth of a belief in a blissful , the Church Fathers , including Augustine Of Hippo , Martin Luther , and more recently by C.S. Lewis and Pope John Paul II . Thomas Jefferson considered Jesus' teaching to be "the most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever been offered to man." The Jefferson Bible Retrieved April 20, 2007 For some Jews, the legacy of Jesus has been a history of defense of the indigenous inhabitants of Spain's New World empire, one of the legacies of Jesus has been the notion of universal human rights. SEE ALSO
NOTES REFERENCES
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0–385–26425–9 : v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0–385–46992–6 : v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4
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