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The initial Muslim conquests (632–732), also referred to as the '''Islamic conquests''' or '''Arab conquests''',Martin Sicker (2000), ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'', Praeger. began after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad . He established a new unified political polity in the Arabian Peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate s saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from northwest India , across Central Asia , the Middle East , North Africa , southern Italy , and the Iberian Peninsula , to the Pyrenees . Edward Gibbon writes in '' History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire '': HISTORY The individual conquests, together with their beginning and ending dates, are as follows: Byzantine-Arab Wars: 634-750 See Also: Byzantine-Arab Wars The Byzantine-Arab Wars were between the Byzantine Empire and at first the Rashidun and then the Umayyad Caliphate s and resulted in the conquest of the Bilad Al-Sham ( Levant ), Misr ( Aegyptus ), Ifriqiya (Mediterranean North Africa ) and Armenia ( Byzantine Armenia and Sassanid Armenia ). Under the Rashidun
Under the Umayyads
Later conquests Frontier warfare continued in the form of cross border raids between the Ummayyads and the Byzantine Isaurian dynasty allied with the Khazar s across Asia Minor . Byzantine naval dominance and Greek Fire resulted in a major victory at the Battle Of Akroinon (739); one of a series of military failures of the Caliph Hisham Ibn Abd Al-Malik across the empire that checked Umayyad expansion and hastened their fall. Conquest of Persia: 633-651 See Also: Islamic conquest of Persia In the reign of Yazdegerd III , the last Sassanid ruler of the Persian Empire , a Muslim army secured the conquest of Persia after their decisive defeats of the Sassanid Army at the Battle Of Walaja in 633 and Battle Of Al-Qādisiyyah in 636, but the final military victory didn't come until 642 when the Persian army was destroyed at the Battle Of Nihawānd . Then, in 651, Yazdgird III was murdered at Merv , ending the dynasty. His son Pirooz escaped through the Pamir Mountains in what is now Tajikistan and arrived in Tang China . Conquest of Transoxiana: 662-709 See Also: Islamic conquest of Afghanistan Battle of Talas Following the First Fitna , the Umayyads resumed the push to capture Sassanid lands and began to move towards the conquest of lands east and north of the Iranian Plateau towards Khorasan and the Silk Route along Transoxiana . Following the collapse of the Sassanids, these regions had fallen under the sway of local Iranian and Turkic tribes as well as the Tang Dynasty . By 709, however, all of Greater Khorasan and Sogdiana had come under Arab control. By 751, the Arabs had extended their influence further east to the borders of China, leading to the Battle Of Talas . Conquest of Sindh: 664-712 See Also: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent During the period of early Rajput supremacy in north India , during the Seventh , the first Muslim invasions were carried out simultaneously with the expansion towards Central Asia . In 664, forces led by Mohalib began launching raids from Persia, striking Multan in the southern Punjab in what is today Pakistan . In 711, an expedition led by Muhammad Bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir at what is now Hyderabad in Sindh and established Umayyad rule by 712. Qasim subdued the whole of what is modern Pakistan, from Karachi to Kashmir , reaching the borders of Kashmir within three years. After his recall, however, the region devolved into the semi-independent Arab ruled states of Mansura and Multan . Conquest of Hispania: 711-718 See Also: Umayyad conquest of Hispania The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula commenced when the Moors (mostly Berbers with some Arab s) invaded Visigoth ic Christian Iberia (modern Spain , Portugal , Gibraltar , Andorra ) in the year 711. Under their Berber leader, Tariq Ibn Ziyad , they landed at Gibraltar on April 30 and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his superior, Musa Ibn Nusair . During the eight-year campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Islamic rule—save for small areas in the northwest ( Asturias ) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees . This territory, under the Arab name Al-Andalus , became first an Emirate and then an independent Umayyad Caliphate after the overthrowing of the dynasty in Damascus by the Abbasid s. When the Caliphate dissolved in 1031, the territory split into small Taifa s, and gradually the Christian kingdoms started the Reconquest up to 1492, when Granada , the last kingdom of Al-Ándalus fell under the Catholic Kings . Conquest of the Caucasus: 711-750 See Also: Khazar-Arab Wars End of the Umayyad conquests: 718-750 The success of the Bulgarian Empire and the Byzantine Empire in dispelling the Second Umayyad Siege Of Constantinople halted further conquests of Asia Minor in 718. After their success in overrunning the Iberian Peninsula , the Umayyads had moved northeast over the Pyrenees where they were defeated 721 at the Battle Of Toulouse and then at the Battle Of Covadonga . A second invasion was stopped by the Frank Charles Martel at the Battle Of Tours in 732 and then at the Battle Of The River Berre checking the Umayyad expansion at Narbonne . In 738, the Umayyad armies were defeated by the India n Rajput s at the Battle Of Rajasthan , checking the eastern expansion of the empire. In 740, the Berber Revolt weakened Umayyad ability to launch any further expeditions and, after the Abbasid overthrow in 756 at Cordoba , a separate Arab state was established on the Iberian peninsula, even as the Muhallabids were unable to keep Ifriqiya from political fragmentation. In the east, internal revolts and local dissent led to the downfall of the Umayyad dynasty. This military expansion era extended the military boundaries of the Islamic world in the pursuit of wealth garnered from booty. The Khariji and Zaidi Revolt s coupled with Mawali dissatisfaction as second class citizens in respect to Arabs created the support base necessary for the Abbasid revolt in 750. The Abbasids were soon involved in numerous Shia revolts and the breakaway of Ifrikiya from the Caliph's authority completely in the case of the Idrisid s and Rustamid s and nominally under the Aghlabids , under whom muslim rule was extended temporarily to Sicily and mainland Italy before being overrun by the competing Fatimid s. The Abbasid caliph, even as he competed for authority with the Fatimid Caliph, also had to devolve greater power to the increasing power of regional rulers. This began the process of fragmentation that soon gave rise to numerous local ruling dynasties who would contend for territory with each other and eventually establish kingdoms and empires and push the boundaries of the Muslim World on their own authority, giving rise to Mameluke and Turkic dynasties such as the Seljuk s, Khwarezmshah s and the Ayyubid s who fought the Crusades , as well as the Ghaznavids and Ghorid s who conquered India . In Iberia, Charles Martel's son, Pippin The Younger , retook Narbonne, and his grandson Charlemagne actually established the Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in 785 and Barcelona in 801. This formed a permanent buffer zone against Muslims, with Frankish strongholds in Iberia (the Carolingian Empire Spanish Marches), which became the basis, along with the King of Asturias for the Reconquista , spanning 700 year which after the fall of the Caliphate Of Cordoba contested with both the successor Taifa s as well as the African-based Muslim empires, such as the Almoravid s and Almohad s, until all of the Muslims were expelled from the Iberian peninsula. Conquest of Nubia: 700-1606 After many attempts at military conquest of Nubia (in the North of modern day Sudan ) failed, the Arab commander in Egypt concluded the first in a series of regularly renewed treaties known as AlBaqt (pactum) with the Nubians that governed relations between the two peoples for more than six hundred years. Islam progressed peacefully in the area through intermarriage and contacts with Arab merchants and settlers over a long period of time after the failure of military conquest. In 1315, a Muslim prince of Nubian royal blood ascended the throne of Dunqulah as king. During the fifteenth century, the Funj , an indigenous people appeared in southern Nubia and established the Kingdom of Sinnar, also known as As-Saltana az-Zarqa (the Black Sultanate ). The kingdom officially converted to Islam in 1523 and by 1606 it had supplanted the old Christian kingdom of Alwa ( Alodia ) and controlled an area spreading over the Northern and Central regions of modern day Sudan thereby becoming the first Islamic Kingdom in Sudan. Their kingdom lasted until 1821. Conquest of Italy: 831-902 See Also: History of Islam in southern Italy The Aghlabid s rulers of Ifriqiya under the Abbasids, using present day Tunisia as their launching pad conquered Palermo in 831, Messina in 842, Enna in 859, Syracuse in 878, Catania in 900 and the final Byzantine stronghold, the fortress of Taormina , in 902 setting up Emirate s in the Italian Peninsula . Berber and Tulunid rebellions quickly led to the rise of the Fatimids taking over Aghalbid territory and Calabria was soon lost to the Byzantine Catapanate Of Italy . The Kalbid dynasty administered the Emirate Of Sicily for the Fatimids by proxy from 948. By 1053 the dynasty died out in a dynastic struggle and interference from the Berber Zirid s of Ifriqiya led to its break down into small fiefdoms which were captured by the Italo-Norman s by 1091. Conquest of Anatolia: 1060-1360 The later Abbasid period was mixed with expansion and capture of Crete (840) in the early days, who soon shifted their attention towards the East. During the later fragmentation of the Abbassid rule and the rise of their Shiite rivals the Fatimid s and Buyid s; a resurgent Byzantine then captured Crete and Cilicia in 961, and soon Cyprus in 965 and pushing into the levant by 975 and successfully contested the Fatimid s for influence of the region until the arrival of the Seljuk Turks who first allied with the Abbassid and then ruled as the ''de facto'' rulers. In 1068 Alp Arslan and allied Turkmen tribes recaptured the Abassid lands and even invaded Byzantine regions pushing further into eastern and central Anatolia after a major victory at the Battle Of Manzikert in 1071. The disintegration of the Seljuk dynasty resulted in the rise of the Turkic Kingdoms such as the Danishmends and the Sultanate Of Rum and various Atabeg s who contested the control of the region during the Crusade s and incremently expanded across Anatolia until the Rise Of The Ottoman Empire . Byzantine-Ottoman Wars: 1299-1453 See Also: Byzantine-Ottoman wars Further conquests: 1200-1800 In Sub-Saharan Africa , the Sahelian Kingdom expanded Muslim territories far from the coast. Muslim traders spread Islam to kingdoms across Zanj along the east African coast, and to Southeast Asia and the Sultan ates of Southeast Asia such as those of Mataram and Sulu . After the Mongols destroyed the Abbasid caliphate, after the Battle Of Baghdad , they conquered Muslim lands, but soon converted to Islam, beginning an era of Mongol expansions of Muslim rule into Central Asia under Timur , founder of the Timurid Dynasty , and later into the Indian Subcontinent under his descendant Babur , founder of the Mughal Empire . The , the Safavid Empire of Persia, and the Mughal Empire of India; the contest and their fall to the rise of the Colonial powers of Europe . Decline and collapse: 1800-1924 The Mughal Empire began to decline in 1707 after the death of Aurangzeb and was officially abolished by the British in 1848. The Safavid Empire ended with the death of it's last ruler Ismail III who ruled from 1750 until his death 10 years later in 1760. The very last and most recent Muslim empire which was the Ottoman Empire collapsed in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. On March 3rd 1924, the institution of the Caliphate was constitutionally abolished by President Mustafa Kemal Ataturk as part of his reforms. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_empire" SEE ALSO
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