Islamic Art

Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim ) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations. Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, ''Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250'', Yale University Press, ISBN 0300088698, p.3 It includes fields as varied as Architecture , Calligraphy , Painting , and Ceramics , among others. Islamic art presents a certain stylistic unity, owing to the mobility of artists, merchants, rulers, and the works themselves. The use of a common Arabic script throughout the Islamic world, and the particular value placed upon Calligraphy , assisted in reinforcing this unity of style. Nevertheless, the great differences in form and ornament between countries and eras has led many to speak of the “arts of Islam” rather than the more singular form of the phrase, “Islamic art.”^{{Link without Title}} OVERVIEW Islamic art is not, properly speaking, an art pertaining to religion only. The term " Islam ic" refers not only to the religion, but to the rich and varied Islamic culture as well. Islamic art frequently adopts secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians. Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0131934554 pg. 277 There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the Arabesque . The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of Allah .Madden (1975), pp.423-430 It is a common myth that human or animal depiction is forbidden altogether in Islamic art. In fact, human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art. Rather, human representation for the purpose of worship is considered , EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies) , volume IV, issue 7, p. 1-24, 2001 Architecture See Also: Islamic Architecture Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the Mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle)."Islam", ''The New Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2005) Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman - Byzantine elements, as seen in the Alhambra palace at Granada , or in the Great Mosque Of Cordoba . The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Domes have been used in Islamic architecture for centuries. The earliest surviving dome is part of the Dome Of The Rock mosque, built in 691 CE. Another prominent dome was added to the Taj Mahal , constructed in the 17th Century with the Taj Mahal . And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes were incorporated into Western architecture.O. Grabar (2006), p.87Ettinghausen (2003), p.87 Calligraphy See Also: Arabic calligraphy Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in a mix of Qur'anic verses and historical proclamations. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic '' Kufic '' and '' Naskh '' scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of Minbar s, and so on. Illuminated scripts, coinage, and other "minor art" pieces such as Ewers and incense holders are also often decorated with calligraphy. Pile carpet No Islamic artistic concept has become better known outside its original home than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the ''Oriental carpet'' ( Oriental Rug ). Their versatility is utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a prayer rug, which would provide a clean place to pray). Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition is Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in cities as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In older times, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage in Islamic lands. Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0131934554 pg. 298 Others From the eighth to the eighteenth centuries, the use of Glazed Ceramics was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of Pottery .Mason (1995), p.1 Although the art of sculpture was hardly practiced at all, work in metal and ivory was often developed to a high degree of technical accomplishment. It is also necessary to mention the importance of painting, and particularly of the illumination of both sacred and secular texts. HISTORY OF ISLAMIC ART The beginnings of Islamic art Before the dynasties The period of rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries the Islamic culture were in present-day Syria . It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or Sassanid Art and Byzantine Art . There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the Louvre , whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Vegetal motifs were the most important in these early productions. Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as warrior and the lion as symbolic of nobility and virility. The Bedouin tribal tradition represented the geographically "native" artistic hegemony. Byzantine influence from the Christian west was not received without reluctance. Coinage and metalwork were imported and used for trade with the Byzantines. Ummayyad Art Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyad s, when new concepts and new plans were put into practice. Thus, the “Arab plan,” with court and hypostyle prayer hall, truly became a functional type with the construction of the Umayyad Mosque, or the Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I)Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305 on top of the ancient temple of Jupiter and in place of the basilica of St. John The Baptist , the most sacred site in the city. This building served as a point of reference for builders (and for art historians) for the birth of the Arab plan, as Byzantine Christian. The Dome Of The Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that recalls that of the Church Of The Holy Sepulchre ), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta , Qasr Amra , and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury. Work in ceramic was still somewhat primitive (unglazed) during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period. 'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the Dome Of The Rock 's construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art. In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian Late Antiquity , which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the Great Mosque of Damascus are based on Byzantine models, but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the Arabesque , which appears both on monuments and in illuminated Qur'ān . Abbasid art , 9th century, today in the Louvre.]] The Abbasid Dynasty (750 A.D. - 1258Gruber, World of Art) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad , and then from Baghdad to Samarra . The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. Art Historian Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic Rome ", because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco-Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world," as 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi wrote. Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305 p.40 The ancient city of Baghdad cannot be excavated, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, Samarra has been well studied, and is known for its extensive cultivation of the art of Stucco . Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the palace of Ukhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the "despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but cramped living quarters Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305. Samarra witnessed the "coming of age" of Islamic art. Polychrome painted Stucco allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The Great Mosque Of Samarra , once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital. Other major mosques build in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque Of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis , and the great mosque in Kairouan . The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of Faience , and of metallic lusterware. Hadith ic prohibition of the use of golden or silver pottery led to the development of metallic Lusterware , which was made by mixing sulphur and metallic oxides to ochre and vinegar, painted onto an already glazed vessel and then fired a second time. It was expensive, and difficult to manage the second round through the kiln, but the need to replace fine Chinese pottery led to the development of this technique. Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305, p. 54. Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government-run workshops known as '' Tiraz '' produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk-ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation were not as important as their cash value along the " Silk Route ." Calligraphy began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated Qur'an s gained attention, letter-forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305, p. 58. The medieval period (9th-15th centuries) Beginning in the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of a Shi'a dynasty, that of the north African Fatimid s, followed by the Umayyads In Spain , gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in Iran. Spain and the Maghreb The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Spain (or Al-Andalus ) was that of the Spanish Umayyads. As their name indicates, they were descended from the great Umayyads of Syria. After their fall, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the Taifa s (1031-91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th centuy, two Berber tribes, the Almoravids and the Almohads , captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Magrhebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of Granada , ruled by the Nasirid dynasty, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492 . In the Maghreb , the Marinids carried on the Almhoad flame after 1196. Outside of their capital, Fez , they participated in many military expeditions, both in Spain and in Tunisia, whence they were unable to dislodge the Hafsids , a small but solidly implanted dynasty. Marinid power declined throughout the 15th century, and they were finally replaced by the Sharifs in 1549 . The Hafsids finally succumbed to the Ottoman Turks in 1574 . al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of Averroes ), the territory was an equally vital center for art. One thinks immediately, in architecture, of the Great Mosque Of Cordoba , but other, smaller, monuments should not be forgotten, such as the Bab Mardum in Toledo , or the caliphal city of Medina Azahara . In the later period one finds notably the palace of the Alhambra , in Granada. Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al-Mughira is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints’ ossuaries. From the periods of Maghrebi rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork. The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork. Egypt and Syria The , who constituted the majority under the particularly tolerant reign of the Fatimids. At the same time in Syria, the Atabeg s (Arab governors of Seljuq princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts between the Turkish princes, and in large part supported the installation of the Frankish Crusaders . In 1171 , Saladin seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory Ayyubid Dynasty on the throne. This period is not terribly notable for architecture, but the production of luxury objects continued apace. Ceramics and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enameled glass became another important craft. In 1250 the Mamluk s seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids, and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517 , and gave rise to abundant architectural projects (many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period), while patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enameled glass and metalwork. The Baptistery of Saint Louis, one of the most famous Islamic objects, dates to this period. Iran and Central Asia , Uzbekistan , ca. 914-43.]] In Iran and the north of India, the Tahirids , Samanid s, Ghaznavids , and Ghurids struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as Nishapur and Ghazni , and the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze. The Seljuqs , nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048 , before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of “Seljuq” works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from Damascus and Baghdad to Merv , Nishapur , Rayy , and Isfahan , all in Iran Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305 p.89. The visual arts flourished in this period Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305 p.88. The second half of the twelfth century witnessed expansion of figural decoration, as seen in the Bobrinski Bucket . Figural decorations were also seen in surface decoration of "narrative scenes (such as the ''Shahnama'' of Firdausi), pictures of coutiers, animals, zodiacal themes and images from the princely cycle featuring hunting, banqueting, music-making, and similar forms of entertainment. Long benedictory inscriptions in Arabic and Persian became a usual sight in the portable arts. Sculpture in stucco, ceramic and metal now {Link without Title} on a new importance." Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305 p.90 Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305 p.91. Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambigious. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources. Hillenbrand, Chapter 4 Under the Seljuqs the “Iranian plan” of mosque construction appears for the first time. Lodging places called ''khans'', or Caravanserai , for travellers and their animals, or caravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort Hillenbrand, p.109. Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era is the development of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the Gunbad-i-qabus (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an example of which is the Tomb Of The Samanids in the city of Bukhara (circa 943) Hillenbrand, p.100.. Innovations in the ceramic arts that date to this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a silicon paste (“frit-ware”), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage Hillenbrand, p.100. In the 13th century the in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia. = The Ilkhanids A rich civilization developed under these “little khans,” who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north-south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of “iranisation” took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the “Iranian plan” mosques, was resumed. The tomb of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran, despite many later depredations. The Art Of The Persian Book was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the ''Jami al-tawarikh'' by Rashid Al-Din . New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster-ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts. = The Golden Horde and the Timurids , painting by Behzād, 1494-45, British Museum.]] The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the Hermitage .
	Image:Abbasid Caliphate, Egypt, Brass Incense Burner, 8th-9th CenturyjpgAn	"http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Egypt" class="copylinks">Egypt ian Brass Incense Burner from the Abbasid period, 8th Century - 9th Century
	Image:Glass Bottle With Enamel And Gilt, Mid 14th Century, Damascus, SyriajpgA	"http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Damascus" class="copylinks">Damascus glass bottle with Enamel and Gilt , mid 14th century
	Image:Fatimid Dynasty, Earthenware Plate Painted Over Glaze With Luster, 12th CenturyjpgA	"http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Fatimid" class="copylinks">Fatimid Egypt ian Earthenware plate painted over with Glaze and luster, 12th century
	Image:Ayyubid Dynasty, Brass Basin Inlaid With Silver, Reign Of Sultan Najmal-Din Ayyub, Circa 1247-1249 ADjpgAn	"http://wwwinformationdelightinfo/information/entry/Ayyubid" class="copylinks">Ayyubid Dynasty Brass basin inlaid with Silver , from the reign of Sultan Najmul-din Ayyub , c 1247 - 1249 AD
	{{cite Web publisher	Victoria And Albert Museum

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Islamic Art