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Science is a body of Empirical , Theoretical , and Practical knowledge about the Natural World , produced by a global community of researchers making use of Scientific Method s, which emphasize the observation, Experiment ation and Explanation of real world Phenomena . Given the dual status of science as Objective knowledge and as a human construct, good Historiography of science draws on the Historical Method s of both Intellectual History and Social History . Tracing the exact origins of modern science is difficult. This is due in large part to the scant documentary and physical evidence of ancient investigations of nature. Even the word ''scientist'' is relatively recent -- first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves Natural Philosophers . While Empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since Antiquity (for example, by Aristotle ), and Scientific Method s have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn Al-Haytham ), modern science was not fully developed until the Early Modern Period , during what is known as the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially , entry "History of Science," ''New Dictionary of the History of Ideas'' (Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005). As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell 's ''History of the Inductive Sciences'' (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independant discipline was launched by George Sarton 's publications, ''Introduction to the History of Science'' (published in 1927) and the ''Isis'' Journal (founded in 1912). The History Of Mathematics , History Of Technology , and History Of Philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception). Technology is likewise closely related to but clearly differs from the search for empirical truth. Philosophy differs from science in its engagement in Analysis and Normative discourse, among other differences. In practice science, mathematics, technology, and philosophy are obviously deeply entwined, and clear lines demarcating them are not evident until the 19th century (when science first became Professional ized). History of science has therefore been deeply informed by the histories of mathematics, technology, and philosophy -- even as those fields have become increasingly autonomous. THEORIES AND SOCIOLOGY OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE See Also: Theories and sociology of the history of science Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science ''is'', how it ''functions'', and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The Sociology Of Science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in Science Studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. A major subject of concern and controversy in the Philosophy Of Science has been the nature of ''theory change'' in science. Karl Popper argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn , that scientific knowledge moves through " Paradigm Shift s" and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend , that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive and that there can be no Demarcation in terms of method between science and any other form of investigation. Since the publication of Kuhn's '' The Structure Of Scientific Revolutions '' in 1962, historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science have debated the meaning and objectivity of science. Often, but not always, a conflict over the "truth" of science has split along the lines of philosophers and natural scientists on the one hand and historians and social scientists on the other (see the " Science Wars "). EARLY CULTURES clay tablet, 492 BC ; writing allowed the recording of Astronomical information.]] See Also: History of science in early cultures See Also: Alchemy In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an Oral Tradition . The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the Development Of Agriculture , which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time could be devoted to tasks other than survival. Many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through simple observation. Though they had no knowledge of the real physical structure of the planets and stars, many theoretical explanations were proposed. Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and Alchemy was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macrobiotic flora and fauna was also performed. Science in the Fertile Crescent From their beginnings in , ''The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdös and the search for mathematical truth'', (New York: Hyperion), 1998, p.187. ISBN 0-7868-6362-5 Significant advances in was a necessary outgrowth of Surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile River . The 3,4,5 Right Triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of Alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean . Science in the Hellenic world and Aristotle . '' The School Of Athens '' ( 1509 ).]] See Also: History of science in Classical Antiquity In Antiquity , the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as Natural Philosophy . The ancient peoples who are considered the first '' Scientists '' may have thought of themselves as ''natural philosophers'', as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers). The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the in which we live come to be?" F. M. Cornford , ''Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought'', (Gloucester, Mass., Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159. Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations into nature. The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. G. E. R. Lloyd , ''Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle'', (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144-6. Science in India , as evidenced by the Wrought Iron Pillar Of Dehli .]] See Also: Science and technology in ancient India Indian philosophers in Ancient India developed Atomic Theories , which included formulating ideas about the Atom in a systematic manner and propounding ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. The Principle Of Relativity was also available in an early embryonic form in the Indian philosophical concept of "''sapekshavad''". The literal translation of this Sanskrit word is "''theory of relativity''" (not to be confused with Einstein's Theory Of Relativity ). The Wootz , Crucible and Stainless Steels were invented in India, and were widely exported, resulting in " Damascus Steel " by the year 1000.C. S. Smith, A History of Metallography, University Press, Chicago (1960); Juleff 1996; Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan 2004
The mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata (476-550), in his '' Aryabhatiya '' (499) and ''Aryabhata Siddhanta'', worked out an accurate Heliocentric Model of Gravitation , including Elliptical orbits, the Circumference of the Earth , and the longitudes of planets around the Sun. He also introduced a number of Trigonometric Functions (including Sine , Versine , Cosine and inverse sine), Trigonometric tables, and techniques and Algorithm s of Algebra . In the 7th Century , Brahmagupta briefly described the Law Of Gravitation , and recognized Gravity as a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of Zero as both a Placeholder and a Decimal Digit , along with the Hindu-Arabic Numeral System now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic World , introducing what would become Arabic Numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th Century .Ifrah, Georges. 1999. ''The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer'', Wiley. ISBN 0-471-37568-3.O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. 'Indian Numerals' , ''MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive'', School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. The first 12 chapters of the ''Siddhanta Shiromani'', written by Bhaskara in the 12th Century , cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigometric calculations based on it. During the 14th-16th centuries, the Kerala School Of Astronomy And Mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as Trigonometry and Calculus . In particular, Madhava Of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of Mathematical Analysis ".George G. Joseph (1991). ''The crest of the peacock''. London . Science in China , 1281 .]] See Also: History of science and technology in China China has a long and rich history of technological contribution. The so-called ') There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo ( 1031 - 1095 ), a Polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the Magnetic -needle Compass used for Navigation , discovered the concept of True North , improved the design of the astronomical Gnomon , Armillary Sphere , Sight Tube , and Clepsydra , and described the use of Drydock s to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of Silt and the find of Marine Fossil s in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean ), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or Geomorphology . He also adopted a theory of gradual Climate Change in regions over time, after observing Petrified Bamboo found underground at Yan'an , Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of Movable Type Printing , Bi Sheng ( 990 - 1051 ). Shen's contemporary Su Song ( 1020 - 1101 ) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of Botany , Zoology , Mineralogy , and Metallurgy , and had erected a large Astronomical Clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning Armillary Sphere , his clocktower featured an Escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting Chain Drive . The and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were early Seismological detectors ( Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the Water-powered Celestial Globe (Zhang Heng), Match es, the independent invention of the Decimal System , Dry Dock s, sliding Calipers , the double-action Piston Pump , Cast Iron , the Blast Furnace , the Iron Plough , the multi-tube Seed Drill , the Wheelbarrow , the Suspension Bridge , the Winnowing machine, the Rotary Fan , the Parachute , Natural Gas as fuel, the Raised-relief Map , the Propeller , the Crossbow , and a solid fuel Rocket , the Multistage Rocket , the Horse Collar , along with contributions in Logic , Astronomy , Medicine , and other fields. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". Thomas Woods , ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization'', (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7 According to Needham, it was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature: EARLY EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE See Also: History of science in the Middle Ages With the division of the Empire, the still held learning centers such as Constantinople , Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in Monasteries until the development of Medieval Universities in the 12th and 13th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicineLinda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons," ''Isis,'' 70 (1979): 250-268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ''The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages,'' Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000, pp. 163-181. ISBN 0-226-74951-7. and timekeeping.Faith Wallis, ''Bede: The Reckoning of Time,'' Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004, pp. xviii-xxxiv. ISBN 0-85323-693-3. Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Greek Philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire . With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age , lasted until the 14th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic , allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek and Latin texts from the Byzantine Empire along with Indian sources of learning provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon. In addition, there was the Hajj , which facilitated scholarly collaboration by bringing together people and new ideas from all over the Muslim World . Science in the Islamic world See Also: Islamic science See Also: Alchemy (Islam) Islamic astronomy Islamic mathematics Islamic medicine Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world Islamic medical text]] Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on . The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally Empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of Light . Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first Scientist " for his development of the modern scientific method.Bradley Steffens (2006), ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. Rosanna Gorini writes: Due to the development of the modern scientific method, Robert Briffault wrote in ''The Making of Humanity'': In Mathematics , the Persian mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the Algorithm , while the term Algebra is derived from ''al-jabr'', the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic Numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of Decimal Point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry. In Astronomy , Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus , preserved in the translation of the Greek ''Hè Megalè Syntaxis'' (''The great treatise'') translated as '' Almagest ''. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the earth's axis. The corrections made to the Geocentric Model by Al-Battani, Averroes , Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi , Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn Al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican Heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Abu-Rayhan Biruni , Abu Said Sinjari, Qutb Al-Din Al-Shirazi , and 'Umar al-Katibi al- Qazwini . Muslim Chemist s and Alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern Chemistry . Scholars such as Will Durant and Alexander Von Humboldt regard Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Geber is regarded as the "father of chemistry". The works of Arab chemists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Arabic writers), and later Isaac Newton . Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in Biology ( Botany , Evolution , and Zoology ), Mathematics ( Algebra , Arithmetic , Calculus , Geometry , Mathematical Induction , Number Theory , and Trigonometry ), Alchemy and Chemistry , the Earth Science s ( Anthropology , Cartography , Geodesy , Geography , and Geology ), Physics ( Optics , Mechanics , and Motion ), Psychology ( Experimental Psychology , Psychiatry , Psychophysics , and Psychotherapy ), and the Social Sciences ( Demography , History , Historiography , and Sociology ). Some of the most famous scientists from the Islamic world include ),Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' 56 (1), p. 25. among many others. Science in Scholastic Europe See Also: Renaissance of the 12th century Scholasticism Medieval technology History of science in the Middle Ages '']] An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of (21 June 2002) and harmonic principles by which God created the universe.The At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable Scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste , Roger Bacon , Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus . Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his '' Opus Majus ''. According to Pierre Duhem , the Condemnation Of 1277 led to ''the'' birth of modern science, because it forced thinkers to break from relying so much on Aristotle , and to think about the world in new ways. The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of began to mathematically analyze the Kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.Edward Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts,'' (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996), pp. 100-3. In 1348, the . These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution , which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific change, halted at the start of the Black Death. EARLY MODERN SCIENCE See Also: Scientific Revolution See Also: Continuity thesis , initiated the field of Classical Mechanics in physics]] The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century and Catholic Counter-Reformation ; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus ; the Fall Of Constantinople ; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy), Galen (medicine), and Aristotle (physics) were found not always to match everyday observations. For example, an arrow flying through the air after leaving a bow contradicts Aristotle's laws of motion, which say that a moving object must be constantly under influence of an external force, as the natural state of earthly objects is to be at rest. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers also found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the Library Of Congress . A list of these titles can be found in Leonard C. Bruno (1989), ''The Landmarks of Science''. ISBN 0-8160-2137-6 ' experiments inspired interest in human anatomy.]] .]] The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution . The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when '' De Revolutionibus '', by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus , was first printed. The thesis of this book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the '' Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica '' in 1687 by Isaac Newton . Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei , Edmond Halley , Robert Hooke , Christiaan Huygens , Tycho Brahe , Johannes Kepler , Gottfried Leibniz , and Blaise Pascal . In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon , Sir Thomas Browne , René Descartes , and Thomas Hobbes . The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations. MODERN SCIENCE ]] The Scientific Revolution established science as the preeminent source for the growth of knowledge. The Early Modern Period is seen as a flowering of the Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution , viewed as a foundation of modern science. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways which continued through the 20th century. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states. Natural sciences Physics See Also: History of physics The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the Heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus Of Samos . This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow Elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. ]] In 1687, , which lead to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law Of Gravitation , which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday , Ohm , and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of Electromagnetism , by Maxwell (known as Maxwell's Equations ). ]] The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck , Albert Einstein , Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of General Relativity , proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of Spacetime , on which both Newtonian Mechanics and Special Relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated Quantum Mechanics , which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître . ushered in the era of " Big Science " in physics.]] Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of Radar and the development and use of the Atomic Bomb . Though the process had begun with the invention of the Cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called " Big Science ", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two. Chemistry See Also: History of chemistry The history of modern chemistry can be taken to begin with the distinction of chemistry from Alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work ''The Sceptical Chymist'', in 1661 (although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after this) and the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen , Joseph Black , Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer . Another important step was made by Antoine Lavoisier (father of modern chemistry) through his recognition of Oxygen and the law of Conservation Of Mass , which refuted Phlogiston Theory . Proof that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803. He also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his Periodic Table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of Urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, Organic Chemistry , and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the nineteenth century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from Whaling . By the twentieth century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in Physiological Chemistry , the precursor to Biochemistry . The twentieth century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling 's book on ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'' used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce Bond Angle s in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA , ''the secret of life'' (in the words of Francis Crick , 1953). In the same year, the Miller-Urey Experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple Amino Acid s, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules. Geology See Also: Geology Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. (1031 - 1095) was the first to formulate hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological Stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by Deposition of silt. - Seafloor Spreading and Continental Drift illustrated on relief globe]] Geology was not systematically restructured during the Scientific Revolution , but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke , for example, formulated theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of Superposition and argued that Fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet 's Sacred Theory Of The Earth in 1685, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history. Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 1700s and early 1800s. became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the nineteenth century, geologists such as Charles Lyell , Adam Sedgwick , and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades. Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand ''how'' the surface of the Earth changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering Ice Age s, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of Radioactivity , Radiometric Dating methods were developed, starting in the 1900s. Alfred Wegener 's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when it was proposed in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of Plate Tectonics , which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate Tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has been the unifying principle in geology. Geologists' embrace of and Oceanography as one of the "earth sciences," and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets. Astronomy See Also: History of astronomy Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an Asteroid ( 1 Ceres ) in 1801 , and the discovery of Neptune in 1846 . Nobel lecture] discovered a 3 kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs Radiotelescope , which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the Age Of The Universe . Supernova SN1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for Neutrino Astronomy , by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande . But the solar neutrino flux was A Fraction Of Its Theoretically-expected Value . This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the Standard Model for Particle Physics . Biology, medicine, and genetics See Also: History of biology History of molecular biology History of medicine History of evolutionary thought ]] In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of Puerperal Fever by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the Germ Theory Of Disease . However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister , who in 1865 proved the principles of Antisepsis . Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur . Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in Preventive Medicine , when in 1880 he produced a Vaccine against Rabies . Pasteur invented the process of Pasteurization , to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Ecology See Also: History of ecology , Apollo 8 , NASA . This image helped create awareness of the finiteness of Earth, and the limits of its Natural Resource s.]] The discipline of Ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian Evolution and Humboldtian Biogeography , in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were Microbiology and Soil Science —particularly the Cycle Of Life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn . The word ''ecology'' was coined by Ernst Haeckel , whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of Ecosystem Ecology , which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of Field Biology . The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of Environmentalism ; the Gaia Hypothesis in the 1960s and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together. Social sciences See Also: History of the social sciences Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. From this effort the social sciences have been developed. Political science See Also: History of political science While the study of politics is first found in Western Culture in Ancient Greece , political science is a late arrival in terms of Social Sciences . However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as Moral Philosophy , Political Philosophy , Political Economy , History , and other fields concerned with Normative determinations of what ought to be and with Deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal State . In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding. The antecedents of politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle , particularly in the works of Homer , Hesiod , Thucydides , Xenophon , and Euripides . Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more Literary - and History - oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to Philosophy . Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis. During the rule of Rome , famous historians such as Polybius , Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic , and the organization and histories of other nations, while Statesmen like Julius Caesar , Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments. With the Fall Of The Roman Empire , there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of Monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity , brought to light a new space for politics and political action. During the Middle Ages , the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine Of Hippo 's '' The City Of God '' synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity , redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and state were clarified and contested in this period. In the Middle East and later other Islam ic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat Of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes , continued Aristotle 's tradition of analysis and Empiricism , writing commentaries on Aristotle's works. During the Italian Renaissance , Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct Empirical Observation of political Institution s and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. In particular, the study of Statistics , to study the subjects of the State , has been applied to Poll ing and Voting . Linguistics See Also: History of linguistics Historical Linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit , Persian , Greek , Latin , Gothic , and Celtic Languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand De Saussure 's '' Cours De Linguistique Générale '' spawned the development of Descriptive Linguistics . Descriptive linguistics, and the related Structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of Generative Linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid Semantics . Additional specialties such as Sociolinguistics , Cognitive Linguistics , and Computational Linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines. Economics See Also: History of economics model]] The basis for Classical Economics forms Adam Smith 's '' An Inquiry Into The Nature And Causes Of The Wealth Of Nations '', published in 1776. Smith criticized Mercantilism , advocating a system of free trade with Division Of Labour . He postulated an " Invisible Hand " that large economic systems could be self-regulating through a process of enlightened self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economical system, called Marxian Economics . Marxian economics is based on the Labor Theory Of Value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, Capitalism was based on employeers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian School responded to Marxian economics by viewing Entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of Supply And Demand . In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics . Under Keynesian Economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote Aggregate Demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of Monetarism . Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into Supply-side Economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion. Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical Economics and New Keynesian Economics . New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government. Psychology See Also: History of psychology The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig ). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered Classical Conditioning ), and Sigmund Freud . Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener 's atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of Behaviorism by John B. Watson , which was popularized by B.F. Skinner . Behaviorism proposed Epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as Cognitive Science . Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of Evolutionary Psychology , Linguistics , Computer Science , Philosophy , and Neurobiology . New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET Scan s and CAT Scan s, began to exert its influence as well. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as Artificial Intelligence . Sociology See Also: History of sociology Ibn Khaldun is regarded as the founder of modern sociology. As a scientific discipline, sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim ), the aim of sociology was in Structuralism , understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of Rationalization , which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois , utilized more Microsociological , qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the Symbolic Interactionism approach to sociology. American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons , who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This Structural Functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, Conflict Theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx . Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through Impression Management . While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including Feminist Theory , Post-structuralism , Rational Choice Theory , and Postmodernism . Anthropology See Also: History of anthropology Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age Of Enlightenment . It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the Culture concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on Colonial encounters between Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as forms of Scientific Racism . During the late 19th-century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on Anthropometrical techniques) and those of an " Ethnological " persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between Physical Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology , the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas . In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures" (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study). The emergence of Paleoanthropology , a scientific discipline which draws on the Methodologies of Paleontology , Physical Anthropology and Ethology , among other disciplines, and increasing in scope and momentum from the mid-20th century, continues to yield further insights into human origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage, and perspectives on the contemporary human predicament as well. Emerging disciplines During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Three examples will be given here: Communication Studies combines Animal Communication , Information Theory , Marketing , Public Relations , Telecommunication s and other forms of communication. Computer Science , built upon a foundation of Theoretical Linguistics , Discrete Mathematics , and Electrical Engineering , studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include Computability , Computational Complexity , Database design, Computer Networking , Artificial Intelligence , and the design of Computer Hardware . One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale Archiving Of Scientific Data . Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of Software Engineering . Materials Science has its roots in Metallurgy , Minerology , and Crystallography . It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, plastics, Semiconductors , and Composite Material s. SEE ALSO
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