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The History of Islam In China begins in 651 with the arrival in China of an envoy sent by the third Caliph during the Tang Dynasty , just eighteen years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad . From then on Muslim migrants and merchants began arriving in China where they played an increasingly influential role, especially in the nation’s economy. Under the following Mongolian Yuan Dynasty ’s hierarchal governing system, Muslims were then given administrative duties. With the end of the Yuan , migration to China decreased dramatically, and the Muslim s, migrants and converts, began to assimilate into Chinese Culture while also producing their own distinct Culture and Muslims continued to be used in important administrative duties at this time. However, the rule of the following dynasty, the Qing proved disastrous for Muslims as clashes between the government and Muslims climaxed in some of China ’s bloodiest wars. The end of Dynastic rule and the establishment of the Communism continued the oppressive condition for Muslims, especially during the Cultural Revolution . Today, the relaxation of the government’s policies towards There is an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nation-wide Islamic associations have been organized to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims . TANG DYNASTY See Also: Islam during the Tang Dynasty , one of China's oldest Mosque s]] Origins Uthman , the third Caliph of Islam , sent the first official Muslim envoy to China in 650 . The envoy, headed by Sa`d Ibn Abī Waqqās , arrived in the Tang capital, Chang'an , in 651 via the overseas route. Hui s generally consider this date to be the official founding of Islam in China. ''The Ancient Record of the Tang Dynasty'' recorded the historic meeting, where the envoy greeted Emperor Gaozong Of Tang China and tried to convert him to Islam. Although the envoy failed to convince the Emperor to embrace Islam, the Emperor allowed the envoy to proselytize in China and ordered the establishment of the first Chinese Mosque in the capital to show his respect for the religion. Arab people are first noted in Chinese written records, under the name ''Ta shi'' in the annals of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). (Ta shi or Da shi is the Chinese rendering of Tazi--the name the Persian people used for the Arabs) Records dating from 713 speak of the arrival of a ''Da shi'' ambassador. In Arab records there are only sparse records of the event. Early Muslims and Interactions The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants.Israeli (2002), pg. 291 In 751 the Abbasid Caliphate defeated the Tang Dynasty in the Battle Of Talas River . The Tang Dynasty saw the creation of the first Muslim embassy, with the exchange of an emissary from Tang emperor Gaozong , with a general from the Caliph Osman. One of the earliest mosques in China the The Great Mosque In Xian was built in 742 (according to an engraving on a stone tablet inside). In 751 the Abbasid Caliphate defeated the Tang Dynasty in the Battle Of Talas River . In 756, a contingent probably consisting of Persians and Iraqis was sent to Kansu to help the emperor Su-Tsung in his struggle against the rebellion of An Lushan .The Muslim Soldiers who settled spread Islam . In the region the Hui Chi tribe accepted Islam , and the name was the beginnings of the reference to the huihui or the Hui as they are know today. Less than 50 years later, an alliance was concluded between the Tang and the Abbasids against Tibetan attacks in Central Asia . A mission from the Caliph Harun Al-Rashid (766-809) arrived at Chang'an .Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-521-49712-4 It is recorded that in 758, a large Muslim settlement in Guangzhou erupted in unrest and the people fled. The community had constructed a large mosque ( Huaisheng Mosque ), destroyed by fire in 1314, and constructed in 1349-51; only ruins of a tower remain from the first building. During the Tang Dynasty, a steady stream of Arab (Ta'shi) and Persian (Po'si) traders arrived in China through the silk road and the overseas route through the port of Quanzhou .The Persian immigrants introduced Polo , their cuisine, their musical instruments, and their knowledge of Medicine to China. See also: Great Mosque Of Xian SONG, LIAO, JIN, WESTERN XIA See Also: Islam during the Song Dynasty In 1070, the Song emperor, Shen-tsung (Shenzong) invited 5,300 Muslim men from Bukhara , to settle in China. The emperor used these men in his campaign against the Liao empire in the northeast. Later on these men were settled between the Sung capital of Kaifeng and Yenching (modern day Beijing ). The object was to create a buffer zone between the Chinese and the Liao. In 1080, 10,000 Arab men and women migrated to China on horseback and settled in all of the provinces of the north and north-east.Israeli (2002), pg. 283-4 The Arabs from Bukhara were under the leadership of Prince Amir Sayyid "So-fei-er" (his Chinese name). The prince was later given an honorary title. He is reputed of being the "father" of the Muslim community in China. Prior to him Islam was named by the Tang and Song Chinese as ''Ta-shi fa'' ("law of Islam"). He renamed it to ''Hui Hui Jiao'' ("the Religion of Double return").Israeli (2002), pg. 284 Many Muslims went to China to trade, and these Muslims began to have a great economic impact and influence on the country. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Muslims in China dominated foreign trade and the import/export industry to the south and west. BBC Religion and Ethics ISLAM Origins Indeed, the office of Director General of Shipping was consistently held by a Muslim during this period. ISLAM IN CHINA YUAN DYNASTY See Also: Islam during the Yuan Dynasty Elevated status of Muslims The Mongol rulers of Yuan Dynasty elevated the status of Muslims versus the Chinese, and placed many foreign and non-Han Chinese Muslims in high-ranking posts instead of native Confucian scholars, using many Muslims in the administration of China.This was part of a larger strategy of the Mongol dynasties to divide subject peoples from an administrative class. The state encouraged Muslim immigration, as Arab, Persian and Turkic immigration into China accelerated during this period. In the fourteenth century, the total population of Muslims was 4,000,000. Israeli (2002), p. 285 These migrants saw the formation of new dynasty) in successive centuries. Muslim Influence Economically, the Mongols used Persian, Arab and Uyghur administrators to staff the officers of Taxation and Finance . Muslims headed most corporations in China in the early Yuan period but as Chinese bought shares, most corporations acquired mixed membership, or even complete Chinese ownership. Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8 Muslim scholars were brought to work on calendar making and astronomy. Kubilai Khan brought Iranians to Beijing to construct an observatory and an institution for astronomical studies. It was during this time that Jamal Ad-Din , a Persian astronomer, presented Kublai Khan with seven Persian astronomical instruments.Zhu (1946) MING DYNASTY See Also: Islam during the Ming Dynasty Muslims continued to flourish in China during the Ming Dynasty . During Ming rule, the capital, Nanjing , was a center of Islamic learning. It is during this time that Muslims truly adopted Chinese Culture . Most became fluent in Chinese and adopted Chinese names. As a result the Muslims became "outwardly indistinguishable" from the Chinese.Israeli(2002), pg. 292 Integration See Also: Chinese Islamic cuisine Sini (script) Chinese mosques Immigration slowed down drastically and the Muslims in China became increasingly isolated from the rest of the Islamic world, gradually becoming more Sinicized , adopting the Chinese language and Chinese dress. During this period, Muslims also began to adopt Chinese surnames. Many Muslims married Han Chinese women and simply took the name of the wife. Other Muslims, who could not find a Chinese surname similar to their own, adopted the Chinese character most similar to their own - Ha for Hasan, Hu for Hussain and Sa'I for Said and so on. Chinese Surnames that are very common among Muslim families are Mo, Mai, and Mu - names adopted by the Muslims who had the surnames Muhammad, Mustafa and Masoud. In addition to names, Muslim customs of dress and food also underwent a synthesis with Chinese culture. During the . A good example is the Great Mosque Of Xi'an , whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty . Mosques in Nanjing are noted in two inscriptions from the Sixteenth Century . Prominent Muslims in this period Six of Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang 's most trusted generals were Muslims. During the Ming Dynasty, famous Muslims worked for the highest levels of the government in a trend that began during the Yuan regime. The Ming Dynasty saw the appointment of Chinese Muslim military generals such as Mu Ying and Chang Yuchun who campaigned in Yunnan and central Shandong . These two areas became leading centers of Islamic learning in China. was one of the few capable generals who survived the massacre of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang . He and his descendants guarded Yunnan, a province near Vietnam , until the end of the Ming Dynasty. Chang Yuchun was one of the founding generals of the Ming Dynasty . Other Muslim generals of the Ming included Feng Sheng , Ding Dexing and Hu Dahai . Zheng He , perhaps the most famous Chinese Muslim , was China 's foremost explorer. He led seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean , from 1405 and 1433, under the reign of the Yongle Emperor . QING DYNASTY See Also: Islam during the Qing Dynasty The rise of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) made relations between the Muslims and Chinese more difficult. The dynasty prohibited ritual slaughtering of animals, followed by forbidding the construction of new mosques and the Pilgrimage to Mecca .Keim(1954), pg.605 The Qing rulers were Manchu , not Han , and were themselves a Minority In China . They employed the tactics of divide and conquer to keep the Muslims, Hans, Tibetans and Mongolians in conflict with each other.Muslims suffered a decline in status, and numerous Hui rebellions, such as the Panthay Rebellion (1855-1873), Dungan Revolt (1862-1878),sprung up during the Qing Dynasty in reaction to repressionist policies. However, even in the Qing Dynasty, Muslims had many mosques in the large cities, with particularly important ones in Beijing , Xi'an , Hangzhou , Guangzhou , and other places (in addition to those in the western Muslim regions). The architecture typically employed traditional Chinese styles, with Arabic -language inscriptions being the chief distinguishing feature. Many Muslims held government positions, including positions of importance, particularly in the army. As travel between China and the Middle East became easier, Sufism spread throughout the Northwestern China in the early decades of the Qing Dynasty (mid-17th century through early 18th century).Gladney (1999) The most important Sufi orders (''menhuan'') included:
Muslim Rebellions See Also: Dungan revolt Panthay Rebellion The repressive policies of the Qing regime led to large Muslim rebellions in the late 18th and 19th centuries. The first of the revolts occurred in western Sinkiang , from 1758 to 1759, then in the oasis of Ush to the south of Lake Balkash in 1765. Another revolt took place in Gansu , where the suppression by Qing armies lasted from 1781 to 1784. The Panthay Rebellion , lasting from 1855 to 1873, took place in the southwestern Province of Yunnan . Disagreements between Muslim and non-Muslim tin miners was the spark that lit the tensions that led to war. The Muslims were led, for the most part of the war, by Du Wenxiu (1823-1872). The insurgents took the city of Dali and established the short-lived independent state of Pingnan Guo, meaning “the Pacified Southern Nation” before being brutally crushed by Qing forces. ISLAM IN CHINA (1911-PRESENT) See Also: Islam in China (1911-present) Republic of China The end of the Qing dynasty marked an increase in Sino-foreign interaction. This led to increased contact between Muslim minorities in China and the Islamic states of the Middle East. A missionary, Claude Pickens, found 834 well-known Hui who had made Hajj between 1923 and 1934. By 1939, at least 33 Hui Muslims had studied at Cairo's Al-Azhar University . In 1912, the Chinese Muslim Federation was formed in the capital Nanjing . Similar organization formed in Beijing (1912), Shanghai (19250 and Jinan (1934).Gladney (1999), pg. 457 Academic activities within the Muslim community also flourished. Before the Sino-Japanese War of 1937, there existed more than a hundred known Muslim periodicals. Thirty journals were published between 1911 and 1937. Although Linxia remained the center for religious activities, many Muslim cultural activities had shifted to Beijing.Gladney (1999), pg. 458 In the first decade of the , over a third in Shaanxi (as defined at that time) and the rest in Yunnan . The Manchu dynasty fell in 1911, and the Republic of China was established by Sun Yat Sen, who immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Hui (Muslim), Meng (Mongol), and the Tsang (Tibetan) peoples. This led to some improvement in relations between these different peoples. People's Republic of China The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949. Through many of the early years there were tremendous upheavals which culminated in the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution the Government attempted to dilute the Muslim population of Xinjiang by settling masses of Han Chinese there, and replacing Muslim leaders. The government constantly accused Muslims and other religious groups of holding "superstitious beliefs" and promoting "anti-socialist trends".Israeli (2002), pg. 253 Since the advent of Deng Xiaopeng in 1979, the Chinese government liberalised its policies toward Islam and Muslims. New legislation gave all minorities the freedom to use their own spoken and written languages; develop their own culture and education; and practice their religion.bbc religion and ethics ISLAM Integration {Link without Title} More Chinese Muslims than ever before are allowed to go on the Hajj .''New Encyclopedia of Islam'', pg. 622-25 China today Under China's current leadership, Islam is undergoing a modest revival and there are now many mosques in China. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nation-wide Islamic associations have been organised to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims. In most of China, Muslims have considerable religious freedom, however, in areas like Xinjiang , where there has been unrest among Uyghur Muslims, activities are restricted. China is fighting an increasingly protracted struggle against members of its Uyghur minority, who are a Turkic people with their own language and distinct Islamic culture. Uyghur separatists are intent on re-establishing the state of East Turkistan, which existed for a few years in the 1920s. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, China feared potential separatist goals of the Muslim majority in Xinjiang. An April, 1996, agreement between Russia , Kazakhstan , Tajikstan and Kyrgyztan , however, assures China of avoiding a military conflict. Other Muslim states have also asserted that they have no intentions of becoming involved in China's internal affairs.Gladney (1999), pg. 471 China fears the influence of radical Islamic thinking filtering in from central Asia, and the role of exiles in neighbouring states and in Turkey, with which Xinjiang's majority Uyghur population shares linguistic ties.bbc religion and ethics ISLAM China today {Link without Title} After, September 11 , many "ethnic" Muslims were forcibly evicted from Beijing , Shanghai and Guangzhou .Wintle (2003), pg. 300 Muslim nations like Iran , Saudi Arabia and Turkey support Muslims in China. Turhan Tayan, the defense minister of Turkey, recently told China "...many people living Xinjiang are our relatives and that we will always be interested in those people's welfare. Our government is and will continue to be sensitive over the plight of our Turkic and Muslim brothers throughout the world." China, however, continues to stress national unity. Gladney (1999), pg. 473 SEE ALSO
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