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The historical Jesus is during the governorship of Pontius Pilate . The Quest For The Historical Jesus began with the work of Hermann Samuel Reimarus .1 SCHOLARLY METHODS: HISTORICAL CRITERIA APPLICABLE TO THE LIFE OF JESUS Historians have developed a number of methods to critically analyze historical sources:
Nonchristian sources for Jesus Historians have little other than Christian accounts on which to base a biography of Jesus. References to Jesus By Josephus and By Tacitus are disputed. Greek accounts portray Jesus as the son of adultery, and Jewish accounts portray him as a magician, but these accounts tell us virtually nothing about Jesus as a historical figure (see Criticism Of Jesus ). JESUS' JEWISH BACKGROUND See Also: Cultural and historical background of Jesus According to the Gospels and other early sources Unknown Berlin Gospel , Gospel Of Peter , Oxyrhynchus Gospels , Egerton Gospel , Fayyum Fragment , Gospel Of The Ebionites , Gospel Of The Hebrews , Gospel Of The Nazarenes , Secret Gospel Of Mark , Gospel Of James , Gospel Of Marcion , Jesus was active in Galilee and Judea (modern day Israel , Palestine , and Jordan ) during the first half of the First Century . Following the break-down of Earlier Jewish Kingdoms the partially- Hellenized territory was under Roman imperial rule, but there were ongoing hopes of a revival of sovereignty. The Roman Prefect’s first duty to Rome was to maintain order, but although the land was mostly peaceful, there was an ongoing risk of rebellion, riots, banditry, and violent resistance (see also Zealotry ). Four decades after Jesus’ death the tensions caused by Jewish hopes for a restoration of the Kingdom Of David culminated in the First Jewish-Roman War and the Destruction Of The Temple In Jerusalem . Given the historical context in which the Gospels took their final form and during which Christianity first emerged, historians have struggled to understand Jesus' ministry in terms of what is known about first century Judaism. According to scholars such as Geza Vermes and E.P. Sanders , Jesus seems not to have belonged to any particular party or movement; Jesus was eclectic (and perhaps unique) in combining elements of many of these different – and for most Jews, opposing – positions. Most critical scholars see Jesus as Healing People and Performing Miracles in the prophetic tradition of the Galilee, and Preaching God's Desire For Justice And Righteousness in the prophetic tradition of Judea. (According to Geza Vermes, the fact that Jesus' followers addressed him as "lord" indicates that they likened him to notable miracle workers and scribes. see Names And Titles Of Jesus ) Nevertheless, Jesus reflects the cultural milieu of his time. Many of his teachings echo the beliefs of the Qumran community (which was probably a branch of the Essenes) and of some of the Pharisees. In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House Of Hillel and the House Of Shammai ; the accusations of hypocrisy which Jesus is reported as Levelling At Pharisees in general may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their Teachings On Divorce (). In general, Jesus' Sermon On The Mount is stricter than the teachings of the House of Hillel. Neusner, Jacob ''A Rabbi Talks With Jesus,'' McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000. ISBN 0773520465. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel. Finally, Jesus' repeated declarations that the Kingdom Of God was at hand echoed popular apocalyptic views and the political views of the Zealots . Following the failure of the Maccabean insurrection against the Seleucids almost two centuries previously, most Jews of Jesus' time believed that the restoration of the kingdom would be accomplished by God, not by any movement of Jews. However, he did believe that this restoration was imminent. Jesus was enigmatic at best about his claim to actually be the presumptive monarch. That he speaks of Twelve Disciples is probably symbolic of the Twelve Tribes Of Israel , and thus a metaphor for "all Israel". According to Geza Vermes and others, the use of the terms "messiah" and "son Of God" by Jesus' followers indicate that they believed he would assume the monarchy upon the restoration of the kingdom (see Names And Titles Of Jesus ). BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF JESUS According to , and Pilate 's crucifixion of Jesus. These events are mentioned in all four gospels. John The Baptist 's prominence in both the gospels and Josephus suggests that he may have been more popular than Jesus in his lifetime; also, Jesus's mission does not begin until after his baptism by John. Fredriksen suggests that it was only after Jesus's death that Jesus emerged as more influential than John. Accordingly, the gospels project Jesus's posthumous importance back to his lifetime. One way this was accomplished was by minimizing John's importance by having John resist baptizing Jesus (Matthew), by referring to the baptism in passing (Luke), or by asserting Jesus's superiority (John). Many scholars posit that Jesus may have been a direct follower in John the Baptist's movement. Prominent Historical Jesus scholar John Dominic Crossan suggests that John the Baptist may have been killed for political reasons, not necessarily the personal grudge given in Mark's gospel. Going into the desert and baptising in the Jordan suggests that John and his followers were purifying themselves for what they believed was God's imminent deliverance. This was reminiscent of such a crossing of the Jordan during the Exodus, leading into the promised land of their deliverance from oppression. Jesus' teachings would later diverge from John's apocalyptic vision which warned of "the wrath to come," as "the axe is laid to the root of the trees" and those who do not bear "good fruit" are "cut down and thrown into the fire." (Luke 3:7-9) Though John's teachings remained visible in those of Jesus, Jesus would emphasize the Kingdom of God not as imminent, but as already present and manifest through the movement's communal commitment to a relationship of equality among all members, and living by the laws of divine justice. All four gospels agree that Jesus was crucified by Pontius Pilate, and this fact is consistent with Jewish accounts of Roman cruelty in general and Pilate's cruelty in particular. Crucifixion was the penalty for political insurrection, used as a symbol of Rome's absolute authority; those who stood against Rome were utterly annihilated. Jesus Seminar scholar John Dominic Crossan points to the use of the word "kingdom" in his central teachings of the "Kingdom of God," which alone would have put Jesus on the radar of Roman authority. Rome dealt with Jesus as it commonly did with essentially non-violent dissension: the killing of its leader. It was usually violent uprisings such as those during the Roman-Jewish Wars that warranted the slaughter of leader and follower. As the Early Church turned from the Jewish community to Gentiles for converts, it may have sought to distance itself from rebellious Jews (those who rose up against the Roman occupation). There was also a schism developing within the Jewish community as these believers in Jesus were pushed out of the synagogues after the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., see Council Of Jamnia . The divergent accounts of Jewish involvement in the Trial Of Jesus suggest some of the unfavorable sentiments between such Jews that resulted. Aside from the fact that the gospels provide different accounts of the Jewish role in Jesus's death (for example, Mark and Matthew report two separate trials, Luke one, and John none), Fredriksen, like other scholars (see Catchpole 1971) argues that many elements of the gospel accounts could not possibly have happened: according to Jewish law, the court could not meet at night; it could not meet on a major holiday; Jesus's statements to the Sanhedrin or the High Priest (e.g. that he was the messiah) did not constitute blasphemy; the charges that the gospels purport the Jews to have made against Jesus were not capital crimes against Jewish law; even if Jesus had been accused and found guilty of a capital offense by the Sanhedrin, the punishment would have been death by stoning and not crucifixion. On the other hand, talk of a restoration of the Jewish monarchy was seditious under Roman occupation. Further, Jesus would have entered Jerusalem at an especially risky time, during Passover, when popular emotions were running high. Although most Jews did not have the means to travel to Jerusalem for every holiday, virtually all tried to comply with these laws as best they could. And during these festivals, such as the Passover, the population of Jerusalem would swell, and outbreaks of violence were common. Scholars suggest that the High Priest feared Jesus' talk of an imminent restoration of an independent Jewish state might spark a riot. Maintaining the peace was one of the primary jobs of the Roman-appointed High Priest, who was personally responsible to them for any major outbreak. Scholars therefore argue that he would have arrested Jesus for promoting sedition and rebellion, and turned him over to the Romans for punishment. :Both the gospel accounts and Pauline interpolation [found at 1 Thes 2:14-16 were composed in the period immediately following the terrible war of 66-73. The Church had every reason to assure prospective Gentile audiences that the Christian movement neither threatened nor challenged imperial sovereignty, ''despite'' the fact that their founder had himself been crucified, that is, executed as a rebel. Fredriksen, Paula . (2000) ''From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ.'' Second Edition. Yale University Press. p. 122 ISBN 0300084579 However, Paul's preaching of the Gospel and its radical social practices were by their very definition a direct affront on the social hierarchy of Greco-Roman society itself, and thus these new teachings undermined the Empire, ultimately leading to full scale Roman persecution of Christians aimed at stamping out the new faith. Birth Historians conclude that Jesus was born around 6-4 BC As a Jewish peasant living in the tiny village of Nazareth, working with his father as a carpenter (Greek "tekton," meaning stone or wood worker), and by the very nature of his teachings it is highly likely that his family was very poor. Year and date The scholarly consensus, based on Josephus' '' Antiquities Of The Jews '' is that Herod died at the end of March, or early April of 4 BC. For instance, he states that Herod Philip I 's death took place, after a thirty-seven year reign, in the twentieth year of Tiberius, which would imply that he took over on Herod's death in 4 BC.Flavius Josephus, ''Jewish Antiquities'', Book 18, Chapter 4 This would imply a date for the birth of Jesus earlier than 4 BC, based on the account in the ''Matthew'' Gospel. The Census of Quirinius, thought to be the one referred to in the ''Luke'' account, took place in 6 AD, which would imply a birth date ten years later than the ''Matthew'' version. Location See Also: Nazarene from the private chapel of the pope in the Vatican. Considered to be one of the earliest images of Jesus.]] The gospels repeatedly refer to Jesus as from Nazareth and from Galilee. The reference to his being born in Bethlehem, in Judea, is part of the suspect nativity narratives in Matthew and Luke. Still, historians don't rule out that he might actually have been born in Bethlehem. This issue is relevant to those attacking or defending Biblical inerrancy and those who believe the Messiah must be born in Bethlehem or Judea. and are the only places in the communities (Nostri and Nazara are both terms associated with Gnosticism), or a term denoting righteousness (Nazur or Nazarite ). Linguistic proficiency Jesus apparently spoke Aramaic , as attested in the gospels. If he was literate, he may have known Hebrew , however Aramaic Targums existed as well and most peasants were illiterate. He may have known at least some Koine Greek as well. Literacy The only two examples of evidence that Jesus may have been literate is a passage in the gospel of Luke () and another in John 8:1-11, where it is noted that ''Jesus bent down and started to write upon the ground with his finger'' during the Pericope Adulteræ , which is not found in the earliest biblical manuscripts. Since scholars of the historical Jesus regard the gospels as fallible, they do not find this evidence convincing. Most people of Jesus' time, place, and social standing were illiterate. Even Paul Of Tarsus probably used an Amanuensis , only occasionally writing himself.For example see , , , , , . Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his ''Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians'' writes: "At this point {Link without Title} the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (; ) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul." This issue is debated among those attacking or defending biblical inerrancy. Socioeconomic status Jesus is identified in Mark as a tekton or Carpenter () and in Matthew as the son of a carpenter (). Some authors (such as Robert Graves in '' King Jesus '') sustain the thesis of royal parentage of Jesus, and place him in the upper class - concretely Jesus would be a nobleman of the Levi tribe on the mother side. There are Biblical references that encourage this idea. However, the assertion of Jesus' royal lineage is problematic if the references in Mark and Matthew, of Joseph and Jesus as carpenters - essentially a laboring class - are to be believed as well. John Dominic Crossan puts tekton into a historical context more resembling an itinerant Irish "tinker" than a Union-card holding artisan, emphasizing his marginality in a population in which a peasant, seized with land, could become quite prosperous. Family background and childhood See Also: Names of Jesus and his family Nativity of Jesus#Paternity Joseph (Yosef) Jesus' father might have been named Yosef. Jesus' reputed descent from King David would be consistent with an attempt by the authors of Matthew and Luke to bolster his identity as the Messiah and King Of The Jews . ''However'', the names of Joseph (Yosef) and Jesus (Yeshua) or Joshua, were extremely common among Jews in the first century C.E, as is the name Mary (Miriam). Mary (Miryam) The majority of information on Jesus' mother Mary comes from her mention in the Synoptic Gospels and the Book Of Acts . The Gospel Of John does not mention her by name but refers to "the mother of Jesus" or "his {Link without Title} mother." Beyond the accounts given in the Gospels and a few other early Christian sources , there is no independent or verifiable information about any aspect of Mary's life. Jesus's siblings See Also: Desposyni Both Mark and Matthew describe Jesus as having brothers ( James (Jacob), Joses (or Joseph), Jude (Judas), and Simon ) Brothers could mean cousins in a Jewish context.In the Hebrew Bible, the word אח"brother" is often used to mean "kinsman" or "cousin." For example in Leviticus the word אחיכם is rendered as "cousins" in some translations (). Mark also mentions his sisters (). Many gnostic texts claim these were children of Joseph from an earlier marriage. MINISTRY OF JESUS Works and miracles Jesus, like many holy men throughout history, is said to have performed various Miracles in the course of his ministry. These mostly consist of cures and Exorcism s, but some show a dominion over nature. Scholars in both Christian and secular traditions debate whether these miracles should be construed as claims of supernatural power, or explained without recourse to supernatural occurrences. Naturalistic historians generally choose either to see the texts as Allegory or to attribute the healings and exorcisms to the Placebo Effect . Jesus and John the Baptist According to three of the gospels, Jesus began his ministry of preaching, teaching, and healing soon after he was Baptized ; according to the Mark and Matthew accounts, by John The Baptist , an apocalyptic ascetic preacher who called on Jews to repent. This event is considered by scholars to have high historical credibility. Luke's gospel records that Jesus' mother, Mary, was related to John's mother, Elizabeth (), although many scholars doubt thisGeza Vermes, The Nativity, page 143.. Matthew portrays John humbly attempting to decline to baptise Jesus. The other gospels do not. This would tend to indicate a difference in the writers' theological and historical perspectives. Disciples of John are contrasted with the followers of Jesus, even as late as the Book Of Acts . Ministry and teachings See Also: Ministry of Jesus The synoptic Gospels agree that Jesus grew up in Nazareth, went to the River Jordan to meet and be baptised by the prophet John (Yohannan) the Baptist, and shortly after began healing and preaching to villagers and fishermen around the Sea Of Galilee (actually a freshwater lake, in Hebrew, Kinereth; in Greek, Gennesaret). Although there were many Phoenician, Macedonian, and Roman cities nearby (e.g. Gesara and Gadara; Sidon and Tyre; Sepphoris and Tiberias), there is only one account of Jesus having healed someone in the region of the Gadarenes found in the three synoptic Gospels (the Demon Called Legion ), and another when he healed a Syro-Phoenician girl in the vicinity of Tyre and Sidon (). Otherwise, there is no record of Jesus having spent any significant amount of time in Gentile towns. The center of his work was Capernaum , a small town (about 500 by 350 meters, with a population of 1,500-2,000) where, according to the Gospels, he appeared at the town's Synagogue (a non-sacred meeting house, where Jews would often gather on the Sabbath to study the Torah ), healed a paralytic, and continued seeking disciples. These activities were typical of the magician-prophets common in the Galilee at the time. Once Jesus established a following (although there are debates over the number of followers) he moved towards the Davidic capital of Judea, Jerusalem, and began preaching in the wildernesses of the Negev and Jordan , including occasional forays into Samaria. He ended his ministry in Jerusalem (the synoptic Gospels suggest that his ministry lasted around one year and was spent mostly in the Galilee; John suggests that his ministry lasted something more than two years and was spent mostly in Judea). These activities were characteristic of millennial prophets. Length of ministry Historians do not know how long Jesus preached. The Gospel of John mentions three separate Passover s during Jesus' ministry, so Jesus' ministry is traditionally said to have been three years long. However, even using this method of time calculation, just under four years is the maximum time, and two years is the minimum. Historians, however, regard John as the least reliable of the four canonical gospels,This view originated in 19th century German scholarship. More recently, the Jesus Seminar found John to have less authentic material even than the noncanonical Gospel Of Thomas . Funk, Robert W. , Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. and its chronology differs from that of the synoptic gospels, which mention only one Passover. Parables and paradoxes See Also: Parables of Jesus Jesus taught in parables and aphorisms. A parable is a figurative image with a single message (sometimes mistaken for an analogy, in which each element has a metaphoric meaning). An aphorism is a short, memorable turn of phrase. In Jesus' case, aphorisms often involve some paradox or reversal. Authentic parables probably include the Good Samaritan and the Parable Of The Workers In The Vineyard . Authentic aphorisms include "turn the other cheek," "go the second mile," and "love your enemies." Jesus' use of parables was so characteristic that the gospel authors frequently comment on it. For example, consider , . The detailed nature of Jesus' spiritual teaching cannot be fully agreed upon because the Gospel accounts are fragmentary, and their objectivity is suspect. Furthermore, he made extensive use of Paradox , and Parable , leaving it unclear how literally he wished to be taken and precisely what he meant. The gospels, especially John, also record Jesus speaking to the disciples in extended Metaphors (not parables) about himself, but these verses are disputed. See for example the allegory of The Vine . Eschatology Jesus also seems to have preached the imminent end of the current era of history. In this sense he was an Apocalyptic preacher. Robert W. Funk , et al, on the other hand, wrote that since the 1970s some scholars have come to reject the view of Jesus as eschatological, pointing out that he rejected the asceticism of John the Baptist and his eschatological message. In this view, the Kingdom Of God isn't a future state but rather a contemporary, mysterious presence. Religious debates The Gospels present Jesus as engaging in frequent question and answer debates with other religious figures. These debates were common between religious teachers of the period. For example, the Gospels report that Jesus made use of a quote from the was at this period just becoming crystallized, and that much variation existed as to its definite form; the disputes of the Bet Hillel and Bet Shammai were occurring about the time of his maturity." The Jesus Seminar believes the debates about scripture and doctrine are rabbinic in style and not characteristic of Jesus. Funk, Robert W. , Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. pages 103-104. They believe these "conflict stories" represent the conflicts between the early Christian community and those around them: Pharisees, Sadducees, etc. They sometimes include genuine sayings or concepts but are largely the product of the early Christian community. Commission of disciples and apostles See Also: Disciple (Christianity) Apostles According to the Gospel of Matthew, the theme of Jesus' preaching (and also that of John the Baptist) was: ", Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. pages 134, 166. These disciples were not just to preach in public places but were also to contact people at their homes, where they were to eat and drink whatever was offered (). This openness may have violated Jewish Tradition , such as not eating bread baked by gentiles, if the mission was also to gentile or non-observant homes. While Jesus' ministry was based in Jewish communities, and he did not preach much in the gentile communities in the same region, Christians believe his message did extend to gentiles; see also Sermon On The Mount#Interpretation . After the crucifixion, some of these apostles preached his teachings and performed healings to both Jews and Gentiles , according to Acts Of The Apostles , but see also Council Of Jerusalem . First century Christian writers referred Jesus as a light for or lord of all nations, drawing connections to prophecies in Amos and Isaiah (), (), (), (), (), (, ). See also Proselyte and Judaism And Christianity . Christians take the , and these commissions are attributed to the Resurrected Jesus , also the stated source of Paul Of Tarsus . The Jesus Seminar rates them black. According to and , Jesus limited his mission to the Jews alone, to the "lost sheep of the House Of Israel ". The Jesus Seminar rated these verses as inauthentic, portraying Jesus's message instead as crossing ethnic boundaries. These verses, in their estimation, represent the influence of Peter and others (so-called Jewish Christians ) who wanted to restrict their mission to fellow Jews. Matthew quotes Jesus as telling his disciples to avoid Samaritan cities, in contrast to the openness demonstrated in the Parable Of The Good Samaritan . The Gospel of John records an instance of Greeks coming to meet Jesus, which Jesus apparently approved of in and records Jesus' conversion of the Samaritans in . Historians, however, generally regard John as the least credible account of Jesus' actions and sayings. Funk, Robert W. , Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 3. Asceticism The fellows of the Jesus Seminar mostly held that Jesus was not an Ascetic , and that he probably drank wine and didn't fast. Funk, Robert W. , Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar . ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 221. He did, however, promote a Simple Life and the renunciation of wealth. Jesus said that some made themselves "eunuchs" for the Kingdom of Heaven (). This aphorism might have been meant to establish solidarity with eunuchs, who were considered "incomplete" in Jewish society. Funk, Robert W. , Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 220. Alternatively, he might have been promoting Celibacy . Jesus reportedly condoned the Genesis description of marriage (Mark 10:6-9). He is also presented as having Spoken Out Against Divorce , which would imply at least an approval of marriage.Matthew,19:2-12 Some suggest that Jesus himself was not celibate. They suggest that he was married to Mary Magdalene , or that he probably had a special relationship with her, Funk, Robert W. , Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 221. or that he was married to Mary The Sister Of Lazarus . But this is very controversial since nowhere in the Gospels is it said either that he was married or that he was single.''Mentiras fundamentales de la Iglesia Católica'', Pepe Rodriguez Ediciones B, 2nd. Edition, Barcelona 1997, p 178 Most Jews married, including Pharisees . In fact for the ancient Jews, a single man was an abnormality . Besides, in respect to women he wasn't a Misogynist ''Mentiras Fundamentales de la Iglesia Católica'', Pepe Rodriguez Ediciones B, 2nd ed. Barcelona 1997, p 178. as suggested for instance in the discussion with a Cananean Woman,Mattew 15:21-31 or in the episode of the anointing of Bethania. John the Baptist was an ascetic, the Essenes promoted celibacy , and ascetic elements, such as fasting, appeared in Early Christianity ; see also Discourse On Ostentation#Fasting . Jesus as Messiah Many scholars argue that, like most Jews, Jesus probably believed that the restoration of the monarchy would be accomplished by God, not by any movement of Jews . However, he did believe that this restoration was imminent. Jesus was enigmatic at best about his claim to actually be the presumptive monarch. That he speaks of Twelve Disciples is probably symbolic of the twelve tribes of Israel, see also , and thus a metaphor for "all Israel". According to Geza Vermes and other historians, that his followers referred to Jesus as "messiah" and "son of God" indicate that they believed he would assume the monarchy upon the restoration of the kingdom (see Names And Titles Of Jesus ). Jesus as Hasidean rabbi In the synoptic gospels, the being of Jesus as " Son Of God ", corresponds exactly to the typical Hasid from Galilee , a "pious" holy man that by God intervention performs Miracle s and Exorcism s. Vermes, Geza ''Jesus the Jew'', Fortress Press, New York 1981. p.209 Paolo Flores D'Arcais , '' MicroMega '' 3/2007, p.43 Identification of Jesus with the Divine Logos is of Later Date . Raymond E. Brown concluded that the earliest Christians did not call Jesus God." {Link without Title} here is no reason to think that Jesus was called God in the earliest layers of New Testament tradition." in "Does the New Testament call Jesus God?" in ''Theological Studies'', 26, (1965) p. 545-73 Similarly, Pinchas Lapide sees Jesus as a rabbi in the Hasid tradition of Hillel The Elder , Yochanan Ben Zakai and Hanina Ben Dosa . The Jesus Seminar , in their ''Acts of Jesus'', claim that Jesus was arrested in Jerusalem and Crucified as a "public nuisance", specifically for Overturning Tables at Herod's Temple , not for claiming to be the Son Of God . See also Sanhedrin Trial Of Jesus . Entrance to Jerusalem See Also: Palm Sunday#In the New Testament The Gospels report Jesus' Entrance to Jerusalem as having occurred shortly before the Passover . However, some scholars have argued that this actually happened at Sukkoth or Tabernacles , based on the part of the waving of palm fronds and the Hosanna cry during that feast. The date given in the Gospels is seen as either an accidental error or a deliberate change. Priestly and kingly messiahs The Jewish term '' Messiah '' ("anointed") traditionally referred both to the King Of Israel , epitomized in David , and to the High Priest , beginning with Aaron . The two meanings are made explicit in the Hebrew Bible , where King and High Priest are both anointed, and are also symbolized in the twin pillars of the temple and their bridging arch which unified them. Though Messianic expectations in general centred on the King Messiah, the Essenes expected both a kingly and a priestly figure in their Eschatology . Some have speculated that Jesus and his brother James were seen by some as the kingly, and the priestly Messiahs, respectively. This interpretation has not found support in academia, owing to a lack of supporting evidence. Jesus and "Barabbas" The Gospels report that Jesus was held at the same time as another, "Jesus Barabbas", the latter often considered to be a title or description rather than a name — it is Hebrew for "Son of the Father". Seeing it as improbable that two individuals both existed, both known as "Jesus" (heb: Yehoshua, or "God will save", colloquially meaning "Savior") and "Son of the Father" or "Son of Man", some have questioned the identity or existence of "Barabbas". According to the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus sometimes prayed to God as אבא 'aba' '' , father. Furthermore, in the Aramaic language, בר אבא 'aba''' means "son of the Father." Some scholars have argued that Jesus was identical with Barabbas , or in some manuscripts, Jesus Barabbas, who the Gospels report was a criminal released by Pontius Pilate instead of Jesus. An alternative solution proposed by Knight and Lomas (1997, p.306) in a popular book touching on the subject, suggests that to prevent civil unrest, Pilate took captive both the Priestly messiah ("Savior, son of the Father") and the Kingly messiah ("Savior, son of Man"), and it was between these two that the crowd was asked to choose. Again, this view has not yet been tested academically. Crucifixion of Jesus The gospels attest that Jesus was crucified by Pontius Pilate , who was the Prefect of Iudaea Province from 26 AD/CE to 36. Some scholars suggest that Pilate executed Jesus as a public nuisance, perhaps with the cooperation of the Jewish authorities. Historians debate whether Jesus intended to be crucified {Link without Title} . Controversial details Crucifixion was a Roman method of execution, commonly used for criminals during the time of Jesus. The assertions made in the Bible that Pilate held a trial for an alleged troublemaker and ended up crucifying Jesus because the local population insisted upon it is considered historically dubious.Ehrman 1999, p. 221-3; Funk 1998, p. 152-3 E. P. Sanders argued that the Cleansing Of The Temple was an act that seriously offended his Jewish audience and eventually led to his death,Sanders 1987, p. while Bart D. Ehrman argued that Jesus' actions would have been considered treasonous and thus a capital offense by the Romans.Ehrman 1999, p. 221-3 According to the Gospels, none of the disciples were present when Jesus discourses with God in the Garden (except at a distance) or with Pilate in Jerusalem. This lack of eye witnesses to the Passion and the audience with Pilate leads historians to conclude that the details of these events are later additions. However, scholars are split on the historicity of the underlying events. Brown 1993, vol. 1, p. 711-12; Funk 1998, p. 152-3 Indeed, no physical evidence of Pilate was known to exist until the discovery of the Pilate Stone in 1961. Scholars are also split on whether or not Jesus was buried, and if so, whether or not the tomb was found empty. After crucifixion, bodies would have normally been exhibited for some time as a warning to the myriad other antagonists in Jerusalem, and eventually left in a shallow mass grave, exposed to wild dogs and other scavengers. Crossan, based on his unique position that the , arguing that this find revealed important facts about crucifixion and burial in first century Palestine.G. Habermas, ''The Historical Jesus'', (College Press, 1996) p. 173; cf. Vasilius Tzaferis, "Jewish Tombs At and Near Giv'at ha-Mivtar," ''Israel Exploration Journal'' 20 (1970) pp. 38-59". Other scholars consider the burial by Joseph Of Arimathea found in Mark 15 to be for the most part historically probable,Brown 1993, vol. 2, ch. 46 and some have gone on to argue that the tomb was thereafter discovered empty;e.g. Paul L. Maier, "The Empty Tomb as History", in ''Christianity Today'', March, 1975, p. 5 Michael Grant wrote: {Link without Title} f we apply the same sort of criteria that we would apply to any other ancient literary sources, then the evidence is firm and plausible enough to necessitate the conclusion that the tomb was indeed found empty.M. Grant, ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' (New York: Scribner's, 1977) p. 176 Mark, possibly the earliest of the Gospels, in the two oldest manuscripts (4th century), breaks off at 16:8 stating that the women came and found an empty tomb "and they said nothing to anyone because they were afraid." (Mk 16:8) The passages stating that he had been seen by Mary Magdelene and the eleven disciples (Mk 16:9-20) of Peter , Paul , and Mary ."2 E.P. Sanders argues for the difficulty to accuse the early witnesses of any deliberate fraud: "It is difficult to accuse these sources, or the first believers, of deliberate fraud. A plot to foster belief in the Resurrection would probably have resulted in a more consistent story. Instead, there seems to have been a competition: 'I saw him,' 'so did I,' 'the women saw him first,' 'no, I did; they didn't see him at all,' and so on. Moreover, some of the witnesses of the Resurrection would give their lives for their belief. This also makes fraud unlikely." "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 Jan. 2007 Other scholars posit hypothetical scenarios to explain the resurrection appearances through natural means, such as the group of theories known as the Swoon Hypothesis , with common variants including Jesus being drugged, having fainted, or undergoing a Near-death Experience , according to which Jesus is revived later. However, most scholars believe supernatural events cannot be reconstructed using empirical methods, and thus consider the resurrection non-historical but instead a philosophical or theological question. Meier 1994 v.2 ch. 17; Ehrman 1999 p.227-8 What is agreed upon is that Jesus' followers at the very least claimed they saw the risen Jesus. QUEST FOR THE HISTORICAL JESUS See Also: Quest for the Historical Jesus The Historical Jesus is the "actual" ancient person, but is only accessible to the extent that later people can reasonably and reliably describe him. The quest to attempt to use scientific principles to reconstruct a verifiable biography of Jesus has progressed for more than two centuries, and the Quest is often conceived of as having several phases:
CRITICISM OF RECONSTRUCTING A HISTORICAL JESUS Critics variously attack the historical reconstruction of Jesus as either a monumental distortion of Jesus' true identity and ministry or as ascribing historical status to a fictional character. Christian criticism In '' The Screwtape Letters '' C. S. Lewis had a Demon explain: "The Historical Point of View, put briefly, means that when a learned man is presented with any statement in an ancient author, the one question he never asks is whether it is true".3 Professor C. Stephen Evans4 writes that "there is no story of the historical Jesus that can be isolated from faith convictions".5 Skeptical criticism See Also: Jesus as myth A small minority of scholars such as Earl Doherty argue that Jesus never existed in the first place, and that attempts to use the gospels to reconstruct his life give the gospels too much credit. SEE ALSO
REFERENCES
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991, ISBN 0-385-26425-9 : v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994, ISBN 0-385-46992-6 : v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001, ISBN 0-385-46993-4
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