Information AboutHinduism |
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Hinduism (known as '''''' in modern Indian languages"Hindu Dharma" in modern Indian languages such as Hindi , Bengali and other contemporary Indo-Aryan Languages , as well as in several Dravidian tongues including Tamil and Kannada .) is a Religious Tradition Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see Flood, Gavin, "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. that originated in the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also sometimes referred to as '''''', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "eternal Law ".The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu Reform Movements (J. Zavos, ''Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India'', Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," ''Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism'', edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987). Hinduism, many of whose origins can be traced to the ancient Vedic Civilization , is one of the world's oldest extant religions.1 A conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions, Hinduism has no single founder. It is also the world's Third Largest Religion following Christianity and Islam , with approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in India and Nepal .2 Other Countries With Large Hindu Populations include Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Pakistan , Indonesia , Malaysia , Singapore , Mauritius , Fiji , Suriname , Guyana and Trinidad And Tobago . Hinduism contains a vast body of scriptures. Divided as Revealed and Remembered and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of Dharma (religious living). In the orthodox view, among such texts, the '' Vedas '' and the '' Upanishads '' are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Tantras , the sectarian Agamas , the '' Puranas '' and the Epics '' Mahabharata '' and '' Ramayana ''. The '' Bhagavad Gita '', a treatise excerpted from the '''', is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''.The ''Gita Dhyanam'' is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the ''Bhagavad Gita''. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them. () ETYMOLOGY The . The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu". See Indo-European Sound Laws for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu" BELIEFS representing the , Siva and Vishnu .]] Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include '' Dharma '' (ethics/duties), '' Samsara '' (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), '' Karma '' (action and subsequent reaction), '' Moksha '' (liberation from ''samsara''), and the various Yoga s (paths or practices). Concept of God Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning Monotheism , Polytheism ,3 Panentheism , Pantheism , Monism and Atheism . It is sometimes referred to as Henotheistic (devotion to a single "God" while accepting the existence of other gods), but any such term is an oversimplification of the complexities and variations of belief. See and 4 Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the ātman —is eternal. According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman , the supreme spirit. Brahman is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist." The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's Atman (soul) is identical to Brahman , the supreme soul. The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom)See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman). Other schools (for example, Dvaita Vedanta ) and other ( Bhakti ) schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with deities such as Vishnu , Brahma , Shiva or Shakti depending on the sect. The ātman is dependent on God while Moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace. When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called '' Ishvara '' ("The Lord"), '' Bhagavan '' ("The Auspicious One"), or ''Parameshwara'' ("The Supreme Lord"). However, interpretations of ''Ishvara'' vary—ranging from non-belief such as followers of Mimamsa kas, in ''Ishvara'' to identifying ''Brahman'' and ''Ishvara'' as one as in Advaita . There are also schools like the Samkhya which have Atheistic leanings. Devas and avatars ) of Vishnu, with his consort Radha ]] The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities, called '', Architecture and through Icon s, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in the Itihasa and Purana s. They are however often distinguished from Ishvara , a supreme personal God, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in a particular form as their '''', or chosen ideal; the choice being based upon their individual preference, and regional and family traditions. Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form, in order to restore '' Dharma '' in society and guide humans to '' Moksha '' (liberation from the cycle of rebirth). Such an incarnation is called an '' Avatar ''. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu, and include Rama (protagonist in Ramayana ) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata ). Karma, samsara and moksha See Also: Karma in Hinduism ''Karma'' translates literally as action, work or deed and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect". According to the Upanishads , an individual, known as the ''jiva-atma'', develops Sanskara s (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The "linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual. Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to Reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of Free Will and Destiny . This cycle of ''action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth'' is a continuum called Samsara . The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that: As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes, Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through Moksha (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20See Swami Vivekananda, ''Jnana Yoga'' 301-02 (8th Printing 1993) It is thought that after several reincarnations, an ''atman'' eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman). The ultimate goal of life, referred to as '' Moksha '', '' Nirvana '' or '' Samadhi '', is described as the realization of one's union with God; realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from ''samsara'' and ends the cycle of rebirth. The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita ( Dualistic ) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a Loka (heaven),The concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or ''loka'' are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God. in the company of their chosen form of ''Ishvara''. Thus, it is said, the followers of ''dvaita'' wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar." The goals of life See Also: Purusharthas Classical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma. The Grihastha Dharma recognize four goals known as the '' Purusharthas ''. They are: # '' Kama (Purusharthas) '': Sensual pleasure and enjoyment # '' Artha '': Material prosperity and success # '' Dharma '': Following the laws and rules that an individual lives under # '' Moksha '': Liberation from the cycle of samsara Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role: dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing moksha, at the horizon. The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described Below , the Grihasthi eventually enters this stage. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in. Yoga , shown here practicing Meditation , was a Hindu '' Guru '' (teacher) recognized for his inspiring lectures on topics such as Yoga .]] In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods ( Yogas ) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. A practitioner of yoga is called a '' Yogi ''. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita , the Yoga Sutras , the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads . Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life ( Moksha , Samadhi , or Nirvana ) include:
An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some devotional schools teach that Bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the age of Kali Yuga (one of four epochs part of the Yuga cycle).For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." () Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of ''jnana yoga'', is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of ''bhakti yoga''), and vice versa."One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." () Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in ''raja yoga'') must embody the core principles of ''karma yoga'', ''jnana yoga'' and ''bhakti yoga'', whether directly or indirectly. HISTORY See Also: History of Hinduism in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual abode of Shiva.]] The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late Neolithic to the Early Harappan period (5500–2600BCE).6 Three key events underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought. These were the Upanishads, Mahavira (founder of Jainism ) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism ). Olivelle, Patrick, ''"The renouncer tradition"'', in The Upanishads , Mahavira and Buddha taught that to achieve Moksha or Nirvana , one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system; Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary. Buddhism and Jainism adapted elements of Hinduism into their beliefs. Buddhism (or at least Buddhistic Hinduism) peaked during the reign of Asoka The Great of the Mauryan Empire , who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian Philosophy , including Samkhya , Yoga , Nyaya , Vaisheshika , Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta .. Charvaka , the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE. Between 400BCE and 1000CE, Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism.7 Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim Conquest In The Indian Subcontinent . During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to Islam . Some Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as Akbar , were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja , Madhva , and Chaitanya . Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman , which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible Avatar s, especially Krishna and Rama.J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in temple, in New Delhi , India]] Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe . They brought Vedic , Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States . At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi . Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON ), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda , Paramahansa Yogananda , B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West. SCRIPTURES AND THEOLOGY See Also: Śruti Smriti Hindu philosophy '' is one of the oldest Religious Texts . This Rig Veda Manuscript is in Devanagari ]] Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times." Vol I Vol III The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them. Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit . The texts are classified into two classes: ''Shruti'' and ''Smriti''. ''Shruti'' (lit: that which is heard) refers to the ''Vedas'' which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages ('' Rishi s''), 8 some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a God or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal. Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways. Vol II There are four Vedas (called '', Sāma- Yajus- ''and ''Atharva-''). The '' and Reincarnation . '' describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi resting on Shesha Nag . Narada and Brahma are also pictured.]] Hindu texts other than the ''Shrutis'' are collectively called the ''Smritis'' (memory). "The Smritis" by Swami Sivananda The most notable of the smritis are the ''s'', which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives. There are texts with a sectarian nature such as '''', the '' Tantras '', the '' Yoga Sutras '', '' Tirumantiram '', '' Shiva Sutras '' and the '' Hindu ''. A more controversial text, the '' Manusmriti '', is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of The Caste System . PRACTICES See Also: Puja Yajna Murti Mandir Hindu iconography Japa Mantra ]] Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in (worship or veneration),) either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to the individual's chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory, In fact, many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through Icon s ( Murti s). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshipper and God. The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the '''' is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.''.'' A few Hindu sects, such as the Arya Samaj , do not believe in worshiping God through icons. Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the ''Parabrahman'') and the Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as Tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, Chakra and Veena , with particular deities.The Swastika sign has been misused and misinterpreted by the nazis. Mantra s are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras. The epic Mahabharata extolls Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age). Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. RITUALS AND CEREMONIES and Lakshmi , heavily laden with garlands, taken during a Hindu prayer ceremony.]]
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