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Frederick Winslow Taylor ( March 20 1856 to March 21 1915 ) was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. A management consultant in his later years, he is sometimes called "The Father of Scientific Management." He was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era . LIFE Taylor was born in 1856 to a wealthy . He eventually became a professor at the Tuck School Of Business at Dartmouth College . Taylor believed that the industrial management of his day was amateurish, that management could be formulated as an academic discipline, and that the best results would come from the partnership between a trained and qualified management and a cooperative and innovative workforce. Each side needed the other, and there was no need for Trade Union s. in the course of his argument for the Eastern Rate Case , which Taylor used in the title of his monograph ''The Principles of Scientific Management,'' published in 1911. His approach is also often referred to, as ''Taylor's Principles'', or frequently disparagingly, as ''Taylorism''. Taylor's scientific management consisted of four principles: # Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks. # Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves. # "Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task" (Montgomery 1997: 250). # Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks MANAGERS AND WORKERS Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system:
(Taylor, ''Principles of Scientific Management'', cited by Montgomery 1989:229, italics with Taylor) Workers were supposed to be incapable of understanding what they were doing. According to Taylor this was true even for rather simple tasks. "'I can say, without the slightest hesitation,' Taylor told a congressional committee, 'that the science of handling pig-iron is so great that the man who is ... physically able to handle pig-iron and is sufficiently phlegmatic and stupid to choose this for his occupation is rarely able to comprehend the science of handling pig-iron." (Montgomery 1989:251) The introduction of his system was often resented by workers and provoked numerous strikes. The strike at Watertown Arsenal led to the congressional investigation in 1912 . PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES Taylor promised to reconcile labour and capital. "With the triumph of scientific management, unions would have nothing left to do, and they would have been cleansed of their most evil feature: the restriction of output. To underscore this idea, Taylor fashioned the myth that 'there has never been a strike of men working under scientific management', trying to give it credibility by constant repetition. In similar fashion he incessantly linked his proposals to shorter hours of work, without bothering to produce evidence of "Taylorized" firms that reduced working hours, and he revised his famous tale of Schmidt carrying pig iron at Bethlehem Steel at least three times, obscuring some aspects of his study and stressing others, so that each successive version made Schmidt's exertions more impressive, more voluntary and more rewarding to him that the last. Unlike [Harrington Emerson, Taylor was not a charlatan, but his ideological message required the suppression of all evidence of worker's dissent, of coercion, or of any human motives or aspirations other than those his vision of progress could encompass." (Montgomery 1989:254)For the stories about Schmidt Montgomery refers to Charles D. Wrege and Amadeo G. Perroni, "Taylor's Pig Tale: A Historical Analysis of Frederick W. Taylor's Pig-Iron experiments" in: ''Academy of Management Journal'', 17 (March 1974), 6-27 MANAGEMENT THEORY Taylor thought that by analysing work, the "One Best Way" to do it would be found. He is most remembered for developing the Time And Motion Study . He would break a job into its component parts and measure each to the hundredth of a minute. One of his most famous studies involved shovels. He noticed that workers used the same shovel for all materials. He determined that the most effective load was 21½ lb, and found or designed shovels that for each material would scoop up that amount. He was generally unsuccessful in getting his concepts applied and was dismissed from Bethlehem Steel . It was largely through the efforts of his disciples (most notably H.L. Gantt ) that industry came to implement his ideas. Nevertheless, the book he wrote after parting company with Bethlehem Steel , ''Shop Management'', sold well. RELATIONS WITH ASME Taylor was President of the American Society Of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) from 1906 to 1907. While president, he tried to implement his system into the management of the ASME but was met with much resistance. He was only able to reorganize the publications department and then only partially. He also forced out the ASME's long-time secretary, Morris L. Cooke , and replaced him with Calvin W. Rice . His tenure as president was trouble-ridden and marked the beginning of a period of internal dissension within the ASME during the Progressive Era (Jaffe 1957:34). In 1912, Taylor collected a number of his articles into a book-length manuscript which he submitted to the ASME for publication. The ASME formed an ad hoc committee to review the text. The committee included Taylor allies such as James Mapes Dodge and Henry R. Towne . The committee delegated the report to the editor of the ''American Machinist'', Leon P. Alford . Alford was a critic of the Taylor system and the report was negative. The committee modified the report slightly, but accepted Alford's recommendation not to publish Taylor's book. Taylor angrily withdrew the book and published ''Principles'' without ASME approval (Jaffe 1957:36-40; Nelson 1980:181-184)... TAYLOR'S INFLUENCE United States
France In France , Le Chatelier translated Taylor's work and introduced scientific management throughout government owned plants during World War I . This influenced the French theorist Henri Fayol , whose 1916 '' Administration Industrielle Et Générale '' emphasized organizational structure in management. In the classic General and Industrial Management Fayol wrote that "Taylor's approach differs from the one we have outlined in that he examines the firm from the "bottom up." he starts with the most elemental units of activity -- the workers' actions -- then studies the effects of their actions on productivity, devises new methods for making them more efficient, and applies what he learns at lower levels to the heiararcy...(Fayol, 1987, p. 43)." He suggests that Taylor has staff analysts and advisors working with individuals at lower levels of the organization to identify the ways to improve efficiency. According to Fayol, the approach results in a "negation of the principle of unity of command (p. 44)." Fayol criticized Taylor's functional management in this way. “… the most marked outward characteristics of functional management lies in the fact that each workman, instead of coming in direct contact with the management at one point only, … receives his daily orders and help from eight different bosses…(Fayol, 1949, p. 68.)” Those eight, Fayol said, were (1) route clerks, (2) instruction card men, (3) cost and time clerks, (4) gang bosses, (5) speed bosses, (6) inspectors, (7) repair bosses, and the (8) shop disciplinarian (p. 68). This, he said, was an unworkable situation, and that Tayolor must have somehow reconciled the dichotomy in some way not described in Taylor's works. Switzerland In Switzerland, the American Edward Albert Filene established the International Management Institute to spread information about management techniques. USSR In the which are characterized by ''continuous'' production processes which are ''continuously'' improved (Head 2005: 38-59). "The easy availability of replacement labor, which allowed Taylor to choose only 'first-class men,' was an important condition for his system's success." (Atta 1986: 329) The situation in the Soviet Union was very different. "Because work is so unrythmic, the rational manager will hire more workers than he would need if supplies were even in order to have enough for storming. Because of the continuing labor shortage, managers are happy to pay needed workers more than the norm, either by issuing false job orders, assigning them to higher skill grades than they deserve on merit criteria, giving them 'loose' piece rates, or making what is supposed to be 'incentive' pay, premia for good work, effectively part of the normal wage. As Mary Mc Auley has suggested under these circumstances piece rates are not an incentive wage, but a way of justifying giving workers whatever they 'should' be getting, no matter what their pay is supposed to be according to the official norms." (Atta 1986: 333) Taylor and his theories are also referenced (and put to practice) in the 1921 Dystopia n novel '' We '' by Yevgeny Zamyatin . ARTICLES Taylor's life and work was discussed in Cynthia Crossen's "Deja Vu" column in the '' Wall Street Journal '', November 6 2006 . FOOTNOTES REFERENCES
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