First Nations Article Index for
First Nations 		Articles about
First Nations 		Website Links For
First Nations 		 

Information About

First Nations
  CATEGORIES ABOUT FIRST NATIONS
   
first nationsfirst nations
   
settlers of canada
   
aboriginal peoples in canada
   
ethnic groups in canada
   
APPAREL
BABY
BEAUTY
BOOKS
CAR TOYS
CELL PHONES
DVD'S
ELECTRONICS
GOURMET FOOD
GROCERIES
HEALTH & PERSONAL
HOME & GARDEN
JEWELRY
MUSIC
MUSIC INSTRUMENTS
OFFICE PRODUCTS
SOFTWARE
SPORTING GOODS
TOOLS & HARDWARE
TOYS
VIDEO GAMES
SHOPPING HOME
MORE SHOPPING...



First Nations people in Canada have been referred to as Native-Canadians, Aboriginal peoples and Autochthone s (a term used by French-Canadians ). They are known officially by the Government Of Canada as ''registered Indians'' if they are entitled to benefits under the Indian Act . The use of the term ''Native Americans'' is not common in Canada, as "Native Americans" is seen to refer to the Aboriginal peoples of the United States specifically.


CONTROVERSIAL TERMINOLOGY

"First Nation" is a legally undefined term that came into common usage in the There are currently over 600 First Nations Governments Or Bands in Canada, roughly half of which are located in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia . There is some controversy over the use of the term "First Nations" to either self-describe Indigenous peoples within Canada, or for non-indigenous peoples to refer to Indigenous peoples in this fashion. Under international law covenants, "First Nations" per se have no standing, as "indigenous peoples" or "nations" do.

The Canadian government, many indigenous people within Canada, and many non-indigenous people use the term First Nations out of respect for the right of indigenous people to describe themselves.

In general, indigenous peoples within Canada who identify themselves as First Nations do not believe in the status of indigenous peoples as Nation-state s, while those who do not use the term, or insist on the term "indigenous peoples", are sovereignists. There are also indigenous people in Canada who use the term "First Nation" for any tribal and or nomadic ethnic group deprived of self-determination as a political recognition of colonization. These groups work internationally on minority rights and self-determination.

Indian Reserve s, established in Canadian Law by treaties such as Treaty 7 , are the contemporary lands of First Nations. Some reserves are located within a city, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan . There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, as some First Nations were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.

Other terms include " Status Indian " and "Non-Status Indian", the latter designating a member of a First Nation who is not entitled to benefits. The use of the word "Indian" in day-to-day language is erratic in Canada, with some seeing the term as offensive while others prefer it to terminology such as "aboriginal person" (or people). All members of First Nations who are entitled to benefits are entered in the Indian Register , which serves as the official record of members of First Nations. Administration of the Indian Act and Indian Register is carried out by the federal government's Department Of Indian And Northern Affairs .

Under the Royal Proclamation Of 1763 , the document many people refer to as the "Indian Magna Carta ",http://www.uppercanadahistory.ca/pp/ppa.html the Crown refers to indigenous peoples in British territory as "Tribes" or "Nations".


HISTORY BEFORE EUROPEAN CONTACT



HISTORY SINCE EUROPEAN CONTACT

See Also: History of Canada#European contact



Despite an ancient history of their own, First Nations cultures are sometimes written about as if their history begins with the encroachment of Europeans onto the continent George Woodcock ''A Social History of Canada,'' 1988; Eric Wolf , '' Europe And The People Without History ,'' 1982. . Nevertheless, First Nations' ''written'' history, in fact begins at the hands of European authors, as in accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries (cf. the Codex Canadiensis ).

Aboriginal peoples in Canada have interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD Woodcock, part I, but prolonged contact came once permanent European settlements were established. These accounts, though biased, generally speak of friendliness on the part of First Nations Woodcock, part I, some of whom profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade generally strengthened more organized political entities like the Iroquois Confederation , and men Wolf, chapter 6 .

As far back as the late 18th century, First Nations have believed they have been targeted for assimilation into what they call European/Canadian culture.[http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ch/rcap/sg/sg13_e.html Stage Three: Displacement and Assimilation], Volume 1, Part 1, Chapter 6 of the Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples , 26 August 1991


Late 19th century

near Georgian Bay by Paul Kane ]]
The situation for Indigenous people in the Prairies grew very grave, very quickly. Between 1875 and 1885, the American Bison were hunted to extinction; the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway brought large numbers of white settlers west; governments, police forces, and courts of law were established; and various epidemics continued to devastate Indigenous communities. All of these factors had a profound effect on Indigenous people, particularly those from the Plains who relied on the return of the bison every year. Most of those nations that agreed to treaties had negotiated for a guarantee of food, and help to begin farming."History of the Canadian Peoples, 1867-Present," Alvin Finkel & Margaret Conrad, 1998 Just as the bison finally disappeared (the last Canadian hunt was in 1879), Lieutenant-Governor Edgar Dewdney cut rations to reduce government costs. Between 1880 and 1885, approximately 3,000 Indigenous people starved to death in the Northwest Territories .

Some Cree chiefs resisted these treaties, offended by the very idea. Big Bear refused to sign Treaty 6 until starvation among his people forced his hand in 1882. His attempts to unite Indigenous nations made some progress, and in 1884, two thousand Cree from several reserves met near Battleford in an attempt to organize themselves into a large cohesive resistance. Discouraged by the lack of government response but encouraged by the efforts of the Metis at Armed Rebellion , Wandering Spirit and other young militant Cree attacked the small town at Frog Lake , killing Thomas Quinn, the hated Indian Agent and eight others. Big Bear actively opposed this violence, but was put on trial for treason and sentenced to three years in prison.


Early 20th century

As Canadian ideas of Progress evolved at the turn of the century, the federal Indian policy pushed harder to remove Indigenous people from their lands and to encourage assimilation. Amendments to the Indian Act in 1905 and 1911 made it easier to expropriate Reserve Lands from First Nations. Nearly half of the Blackfoot reserve in Alberta was sold, and when the Kainai (Blood) Nation refused to accept the sale of their lands in 1916 and 17, the Department Of Indian Affairs held back funding necessary for farming until they relented. In British Columbia , the McKenna-McBride Royal Commission was created in 1912 to settle disputes over reserve lands in the province. The claims of Indigenous people were ignored, and the commission allocated new, less valuable lands for many First Nations.

Those nations who managed to maintain their ownership of good lands were often farmed successfully. Indigenous people living near the Cowichan and Fraser River s, and those from Saskatchewan managed to produce good harvests. Since 1881, those living in the Prairie Provinces required permits from Indian Agent s to sell any of their produce, and a pass system was later introduced in the old Northwest Territories requiring Indigenous people to seek written permission from an Indian agent before leaving their reserves for any length of time. These laws, as well as the bans on Sun Dance s and Potlatch es were regularly defied as Indigenous people attempted to retain their freedom and their culture.


Late 20th century

Following the end of the Second World War , laws concerning First Nations in Canada began to change, albeit slowly. The federal prohibition of Potlatch and Sun Dance ceremonies ended in 1951, and provinces began to accept the right of Indigenous people to vote. All first Nations people were granted the right to vote in federal elections in 1960. By comparison, Native Americans In The United States had been allowed to vote since the 1920s. The Effect of Expansion of the Franchise on Turnout , Michael Kinnear, "Electoral Insight," November 2003


1969 White Paper

In his 1969 White Paper , Minister Of Indian Affairs , the Hon. Jean Chrétien , proposed the abolition of the Indian Act Of Canada , the rejection of Aboriginal Land Claims , and the assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population with the status of "other ethnic minorities" rather than a distinct group.

A response by Harold Cardinal and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta (entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as the "Red Paper") explained the widespread opposition to Chrétien's proposal from Status Indians in Canada. Prime Minister Trudeau and the Liberals began to back away from the 1969 White Paper, particularly after the Calder Case decision in 1973.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3683/is_199904/ai_n8843392/pg_9 With an ear to the ground: The CCF/NDP and aboriginal policy in Canada, 1926-1993] Journal of Canadian Studies, Spring 1999 by Frank James Tester, Paule McNicoll, Jessie Forsyth


Ontario Minamata disease

In 1970, severe Mercury Poisoning called Ontario Minamata Disease was discovered at Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation , Wabaseemoong Independent Nation , and Aamjiwnaang First Nation , all near Dryden, Ontario where there was extensive mercury pollution from Dryden Chemicals Company. The Ontario provincial government closed the commercial fisheries run by the First Nation people and ordered them to stop eating local fish, which made up the majority of their diet.http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-70-1178-6450/disasters_tragedies/grassy_narrows_mercury_pollution/clip1, Mercury Rising: The Poisoning of Grassy Narrows, ''CBC TV'', November 1st, 1970. Accessed 2007-07-26


Elijah Harper & the Meech Lake Accord


In in 1992 , despite the fact that Assembly Of First Nations Chief Ovide Mercredi supported it.


Women's status & Bill C-31

According to Indian Act , Indigenous women who married white men lost their Treaty Status , and their children would not be granted status at all. In the reverse situation (Indigenous men married to white women), men could keep their status, and their children would also gain treaty status. In the 1970s, the Indian Rights For Indian Women and National Native Women's Association groups campaigned against this practice on the grounds that it discriminated against women and failed to fulfill treaty promises. They successfully convinced the federal government to change the section of the act with the adoption of Bill C-31 on June 28, 1985. Women who had lost their status and children who had been excluded were then able to register and gain official Indian status. Despite these changes, First Nations women who married white men could only pass their status on one generation; their children would gain status, but (without a marriage to a full status Indian) their grandchildren would not.

Bill C-31 further gave elected bands the power to regulate who was allowed to reside on their reserves and to control development on their reserves. It abolished the concept of "enfranchisement" by which First Nations people could gain certain rights by renouncing their Indian status. BILL C-31


The Erasmus-Dussault commission

protesters at the Caledonia Land Dispute ]]
In 1991, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney created the Royal Commission On Aboriginal Peoples . Their report was issued in 1996; its most revolutionary proposal was the creation of a government for (and by) the First Nations that would be fully responsible within its own jurisdiction, and with which the federal government would speak on a "Nation-to-Nation" basis. This proposal offered a far different way of doing politics than the traditional policy of assigning all First Nations matters under the jurisdiction of the Indian and Northern Affairs, managed by one minister of the federal cabinet. The report also recommended providing the governments of the First Nations with up to CAD $2 billion every year until 2010, in order to reduce the socioeconomic gap between the First Nations and the rest of the Canadian citizenry. The money would represent an increase of at least 50% to the budget of Indian and Northern Affairs. Finally, the report insisted on the importance of First Nations leaders to actively think of ways to cope with the challenging issues their people were facing, so the First Nations could take their destiny into their own hands.

The federal government, then headed by Jean Chrétien , responded to the report a year later by officially presenting its apologies for the forced acculturation the federal government had imposed on the First Nations, and by offering an "initial" provision of $350 million.

In the spirit advocated by the Eramus-Dussault commission, several tripartite (federal, provincial, and First Nations) accords have been signed since the report was issued. Several political crises between different provincial governments and different bands of the First Nations also occurred in the late 20th century, notably:


Early 21st century

See Also: Caledonia land dispute
Kelowna Accord



In 2001, the Quebec government, the federal government and the Cree Nation signed " La Paix Des Braves " (''The Peace of the Braves'', a reference to the 1701 peace treaty between the French and the Iroquois League ). The agreement would allow Hydro-Québec to exploit the province's hydroelectric resources in exchange for an allocation of $3.5 billion to be given to the government of the Cree Nation. Later, the Inuit of northern Quebec joined in the agreement.

In 2005, the leaders of the First Nations, various provincial governments and the federal government signed the Kelowna Accord , which would have yielded $5 billion for 5 years, but the newly-elected government of Stephen Harper refused to sign the accord.

At present, many First Nations, along with their peers the Métis and the Inuit, claim to receive inadequate funding for education, and allege their rights have been overlooked in many instances. Recently James K. Bartleman , Lieutenant Governor Of Ontario , listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities. During his term that began in 2002, he has launched several initiatives to promote literacy and bridge building. Bartleman himself is the first aboriginal person to hold the Lieutenant Governor's position in Ontario.