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Over the course of the , and like the railways, introduced sweeping changes in Infrastructure , Manufacturing and Legislation . The wide reaching effects of automobiles on everyday life have been a subject of much controversy. Proponents on one end of the spectrum claim the car is a marvel of technology that has brought about unprecedented prosperity, while opponents on the other end claim it lead to a mode of urban and suburban planning that discourages walking and human interaction, uses large amounts of polluting fuel, and drains urban centers of their populations leading to wide-spread Urban Decay and the neglect of once proud and efficient Cities .'' Asphalt Nation: how the automobile took over America, and how we can take it back '' By Jane Holtz Kay Published 1998 ISBN 0520216202 in Atlanta, Georgia .]] ECONOMIC CHANGES The development of the automobile has caused changes in City Planning , as well as changing the roles of Horse s and Railroad s. Industry restructuring Huge industries devoted only to the automobile were created. Others were expanded from once trivial insignificance to eminent importance. Before the Internal-combustion Engine was developed, Gasoline was a waste product, often discarded. Once the automobile became commonplace, the production of gasoline blossomed into a matter of such importance that national governments took action to secure the steady flow of Oil . The Steel Industry was already established, but the coming of the automobile created huge amounts of business for it. The Chemical , Rubber , and Petroleum industries were remade to suit the needs of the automobile and industries sprang up, such as Service Station s, Motel s, and automobile Insurance , that were completely reliant upon the automobile for their livelihood. As automobiles began to travel at higher and higher speeds, the Sign industry began building larger and larger signs and Billboards to draw the attention of drivers. Some urban areas remain pedestrian friendly with many stores, cafes, and other attractions, yet still have a great deal of motor traffic passing through, and hence billboards atop many business buildings. A pedestrian in these areas is likely not even to notice the billboards, because a pedestrian's attention tends to be focused on the objects in the immediate vicinity. Infrastructure Aside from industries, one of the most visible effects the automobile has had on the world is the huge increase in the amount of surfaced Road s. For example, between 1921 and 1941 , the United States spent US$40 billion on roads, increasing the amount of surfaced road from 387,000 miles (619,000 Kilometer s) to over 1,000,000 miles (1.6 million kilometers) which doesn't even take into account road widening... With increased road-building came loss of Habitat for Wildlife . Loss of Rural areas and Agricultural land to Pavement has also been extensive. The quality of roads was also improved. Roads were paved with Asphalt , and roads with more than one lane on each side became commonplace. In addition to federal, state, and local dollars for roadway construction, car use was also encouraged through new Zoning Laws that required that any new business construct a certain amount of parking based on the size and type of facility. The effect of this was to create a massive quantity of free Parking spaces and to push businesses further back from the road. Many shopping centers and Suburbs abandon sidewalks altogether, making pedestrian access dangerous. This had the effect of encouraging people to drive, even for short trips that might have been walkable, thus increasing and solidifying American auto-dependency. Lots of Parking: Land Use in a Car Culture By John A. Jakle, Keith A. Sculle. 2004. ISBN 0813922666 As a result of this change, employment opportunities for people who were not wealthy enough to own a car and for people who could not drive, due to age or physical disabilities, became severely limited. TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES Production The Assembly Line and other methods of Mass Production were developed when American businessmen began seeking ways to build more automobiles at a lower price. The idea of using many small identical parts that could be exchanged for each other was engendered by the president of the Cadillac Automobile Company , Henry M. Leland . Once other automobile makers realized the value of small identical parts that were interchangeable, they hired many small machine shops to make identical parts that were then put together at assembly plants. Because of this, replacement parts could easily be sent to car owners. This greatly prolonged the life of the automobile, making it even more attractive to consumers. Ransom E. Olds took the first step towards assembly line production when he had the framework of each automobile pushed on a wooden platform supported by rolling casters. Henry Ford built on this when he used Conveyor Belt s to pull along the bare frame of an automobile while workmen added parts to it that were brought to them by other conveyor belts. Ford's utilization of the conveyor belt in the factory was inspired by the Chicago Packing Association's disassembly line, where workers dressed Beef pulled along by an overhead trolley. CULTURAL CHANGES Prior to the appearance of the automobile, horses, walking, Streetcars and Bicycle s were the major Modes Of Transportation within cities. Horses require a large amount of care, and were therefore kept in public facilities that were usually far from residences. The Manure they left on the streets also created a Sanitation problem. The automobile had neither of those disadvantages. The automobile made regular medium-distance travel more convenient and affordable, also in areas without railways. Because automobiles did not require rest, and were faster than horse-drawn conveyances, people were routinely able to travel farther than in earlier times. Historically, most people never travelled more than a few dozen kilometres from their birthplace in their entire lives ; the advent of the automobile began the transformation of society in such a way that those who had never travelled that distance were only a tiny minority. Some experts suggest that many of these changes began during the ''Golden age of the bicycle'', the preceding era from 1880—1915.Smith, Robert (1972). ''A Social History of the Bicycle, its Early Life and Times in America''. American Heritage Press. Changes to urban society Beginning in the 1940s , most urban environments in United States lost their Streetcars , Cable Cars , and other forms of Light Rail , to be replaced by Diesel -burning motor coaches or Buses . Many of these have never returned, though some urban communities eventually installed Subway s. Another change brought about by the automobile is that modern urban pedestrians must be more alert than their ancestors. In the past, a pedestrian had to worry about relatively slow-moving streetcars, or other obstacles of travel. With the proliferation of the automobile, a pedestrian has to worry about being hit by automobiles at high speeds, and breathing noxious exhaust fumes. The Futurama exhibit at the 1939 New York World's Fair showed a City of the Future in which pedestrian and automobile traffic was fully grade-separated. However, for cost reasons, this vision has never come to pass outside of small-scale Skyway s in a few downtowns. The loss of , and today people rarely get the recommended amount of exercise to stay healthy. In fact, since the 1980s , Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the United States. In areas with high crime rates, people who do exercise usually prefer to do so in the safety of their home or in subscriber-only fitness clubs (which they drive to and from). in large vehicles.]] Advent of suburban society Because of the automobile, the outward growth of cities accelerated, and the development of Suburb s in automobile intensive cultures was intensified. Until the advent of the automobile, Factory Worker s lived either close to the factory or in high density communities further away, connected to the factory by Streetcar or Rail . The automobile and the federal Subsides for roads and suburban development that supported car culture allowed people to live in low density communities far from the city center and Integrated city neighborhoods. The developing suburbs created few local jobs, due to single use zoning. Hence, residents commuted longer distances to work each day as the suburbs expanded... Shopping Center s were built in or near suburbs to save residents trips to the city. The shopping centers provided goods and services further reducing the need for suburban residents to visit the city. Finally, as the Service Economy gained importance, Business Park s appeared, allowing suburb dwellers to work in the suburbs. The automobile caused the Decentralisation of cities, segregating land use and ethnicities, while increasing the Ecological Footprint of their residents. Car culture The car had a significant effect on the culture of the Middle Class . Automobiles were incorporated into all parts of life from music to books to movies. Between 1905 and 1908 , more than 120 songs were written in which the automobile was the subject. The automotive themes of these songs reflected the general culture of the automotive industry: sexual adventure, liberation from social control, and masculine power. Books centered on motor boys who liberated themselves from the average, normal, middle class life, to travel and seek adventure in the exotic. Car ownership came to be associated with independence, freedom, and increased status. Changes to individual lifestyle in America At the end of the 19th Century , Americans put a great deal of emphasis on personal freedom and individual mobility. The automobile encompassed both of these ideals. Individuality was increased for the automobile owner. This individual zeal didn’t apply to everyone. Conservative critics felt that the automobile decreased Church attendance, increased Sexual Activity , and weakened family unity. A popular religious magazine of the day, the ''Independent'', argued that it took away from even more important things. It argued, for example, that middle class men were prone to delay marriage in order to buy an automobile. It then argued that the automobile led to an augmented Divorce rate, due to an increased stress rate over car payments. Others felt that couples delayed having children or even had fewer children, owing to the expense. Social status The automobile signifies much more to many than simply a mode of transportation. Henri Lefebvre called the automobile "the Epitome of possessions". In the early years, when the first automobiles were imported to America from France for the Bourgeois and elite, the car served as a mark of distinction above all others. The automobile rapidly became a symbol of Social Status , and in some cases, a fashion item. The automobile, more than almost any other possession, allowed people to flaunt wealth. Not only was the ownership of an automobile demonstrative of a certain level of income and prestige (and still is, especially in poorer nations where the automobile isn't ubiquitous), it is also highly visible. Recreation The creation of good roads and dependable automobiles changed Recreation and Vacation s. Before the automobile, Resort s were predominantly found near the coast or a railroad. Once the automobile became abundant, resorts sprang up that were off the beaten path. Resorts appeared in scenic places, far away from the hectic life of the cities. In the United States, National Park s became popular tourist attractions and developed designs with automobile travelers in mind. Safety Automobile accidents caused many deaths and injuries, especially before automobile safety Law s were implemented. To this date, automobiles remain a major cause of accidental Death and Injury , not to mention emotional Stress . Car drivers are less vulnerable to Mugging than pedestrians and transit riders, but are naturally vulnerable to Crime s like Carjacking , to Tort s like injuries sustained in Car Accident s, and to the inconvenience of vehicle breakdowns. The automobile expanded the role, abilities and efficiency of the Emergency Service s such as the response to emergency calls for Firefighter s or Paramedic s. POLITICAL CHANGES George Monbiot speculates that widespread car culture has shifted voter's preference to the Right of the political spectrum. {Link without Title} He thinks that car culture has contributed to an increase in individualism and fewer social interactions between members of different socioeconomic classes. The growth of the suburbs is also considered an important factor. Suburbs dwellers are more likely to vote conservative than city dwellers. Since the early days of the automobile, automobile manufactures successfully lobbied consecutive governments to build public roads... Road building was sometimes also influenced by Keynesian-style political ideologies. In Europe, massive freeway building programs were initiated by a number of Socialist governments after WW2, in an attempt to create jobs and make the automobile available to the working classes. From the 1970s onwards, promotion of the automobile increasingly became a trait of the Conservative right. Margaret Thatcher talked of a "great car economy", and increased government spending on roads. Conservative parties often attempt to win votes by promising to defend motorists' rights. CAR-ORIENTED CONVENIENCE Lane at an United States Post Office ]] Many aspects of daily life in the First World industrialized countries reflect an impulse to make life convenient for car users. Without having to exit one's car, a resident of a typical large North America n City may accomplish the following:
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES For much of the early history of the car, no consideration was given to various environmental effects caused by the automobile. Automobiles are a major source of Air Pollution and Noise Pollution . The manufacture and use of automobiles makes up 20 to 25 percent1 of the Carbon Dioxide emissions that are widely believed to be causing global Climate Change . There are over 600 million cars and light vehicles (excluding heavy trucks and buses) worldwide,2 This is increasing by about 50 million a year. The average car or light vehicle emits approximately 0.2 kilograms of carbon dioxide per kilometre - in terms of volume, that is about 1 cubic metre of carbon dioxide for every 10 kilometres travelled. With increased road-building came negative effects on Habitat for Wildlife . New roads built through sensitive habitats can cause the loss or degradation of delicate ecosystems, and the materials required for roads come from large-scale rock Quarry ing and Gravel extraction, which often occurs in sensitive ecological areas. Road construction also alters the Water Table , increases Surface Runoff , and increases the risk of flooding. SEE ALSO Alternatives Effects Social aspects REFERENCES |
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