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Deoxyribonucleic acid, or '''DNA''', is a Nucleic Acid that contains the Genetic instructions used in the Development and functioning of all known Living Organisms . The main role of DNA Molecule s is the long-term storage of Information and DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of Cell s, such as Protein s and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called Gene s, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information. Chemically, DNA is a long Polymer of simple units called Nucleotide s, with a backbone made of sugars and phosphate atoms joined by Ester bonds. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called Bases . It is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the Genetic Code , which specifies the sequence of the Amino Acid s within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA , in a process called Transcription . Most of these RNA molecules are used to synthesize proteins, but others are used directly in structures such as Ribosome s and Spliceosome s. Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called Chromosome s and the set of chromosomes within a cell make up a Genome . These chromosomes are duplicated before cells Divide , in a process called DNA Replication . Eukaryotic Organisms such as Animal s, Plant s, and Fungi store their DNA inside the Cell Nucleus , while in Prokaryote s such as Bacteria it is found in the cell's Cytoplasm . Within the chromosomes, Chromatin proteins such as Histone s compact and organize DNA, which helps control its interactions with other proteins and thereby control which Genes are transcribed. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES DNA is a long Polymer made from repeating units called Nucleotide s.1Butler, John M. (2001) ''Forensic DNA Typing'' "Elsevier". pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-12-147951-0. The DNA chain is 22 to 26 Ångström s wide (2.2 to 2.6 Nanometre s), and one nucleotide unit is 3.3 Ångstroms (0.33 nanometres) long.2 Although each individual repeating unit is very small, DNA polymers can be enormous molecules containing millions of nucleotides. For instance, the largest human Chromosome , chromosome number 1, is 220 million Base Pair s long.3 In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a tightly-associated pair of molecules.4Berg J., Tymoczko J. and Stryer L. (2002) ''Biochemistry.'' W. H. Freeman and Company ISBN 0-7167-4955-6 These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape of a Double Helix . The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the molecule, which holds the chain together, and a base, which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix. In general, a base linked to a sugar is called a Nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a Nucleotide . If multiple nucleotides are linked together, as in DNA, this polymer is referred to as a Polynucleotide . Abbreviations and Symbols for Nucleic Acids, Polynucleotides and their Constituents IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (CBN) Accessed 03 Jan 2006 The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating Phosphate and Sugar residues.5 The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a Pentose (five Carbon ) sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form Phosphodiester Bond s between the third and fifth carbon Atom s of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric Bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand. This arrangement of DNA strands is called antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are referred to as the 5′ (''five prime'') and 3′ (''three prime'') ends. One of the major differences between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with 2-deoxyribose being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar Ribose in RNA. The DNA double helix is stabilized by Hydrogen Bond s between the bases attached to the two strands. The four bases found in DNA are Adenine (abbreviated A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) and Thymine (T). These four bases are shown below and are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. |
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