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Ths article deals with conservatism as a political philosophy. For other uses (such as national movements or parties), see Conservatism (disambiguation) and/or the navigation bar on the right side of this page. Conservatism is a term used to describe Political Philosophies that favor tradition and gradual change, where tradition refers to religious, cultural, or nationally defined beliefs and customs. The term is derived from the Latin, ''conservāre'', ''to conserve''; "to keep, guard, observe". Since different cultures have different established values, conservatives in different cultures have different goals. There is no perpetually 'ideal' society in conservative thought. Some conservatives seek to preserve the Status Quo or to reform society slowly, while others seek to return to the values of an earlier time, the Status Quo Ante . Conservatism as a political philosophy is notoriously difficult to define, encompassing numerous different movements in various countries and time periods; there may sometimes be contradictions between alternative conceptions of conservatism as the ideology of preserving the past, and the contemporary worldwide conception of conservatism as a Right-wing political stance. For instance, as one commentator questions, "who are the 'conservatives' in today's Russia ? Are they the unreconstructed Stalinists , or the reformers who have adopted the Right-wing views of modern conservatives such as Margaret Thatcher ?" The Political Compass Home Page calls it “maintenance of the social ecology” and “the politics of delay, the purpose of which is to maintain in being, for as long as possible, the life and health of a social organism.” profam.org DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT Conservatism has not produced, nor does it tend to produce systematic treatises like Hobbes’ ''Leviathan'' or Locke’s '' Two Treatises Of Government ''. Consequently, what it means to be a conservative today is frequently the subject of debate and a topic muddied by association with various (and often opposing) ideologies or political parties. Scholar R.J. White once put it this way: ''"To put conservatism in a bottle with a label is like trying to liquefy the atmosphere … The difficulty arises from the nature of the thing. For conservatism is less a political doctrine than a habit of mind, a mode of feeling, a way of living."''As part of introduction to ''The Conservative Tradition'', ed. R.J. White (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1950) Although political thought, from its beginnings, contains many strains that can be retrospectively labeled conservative, it was not until the Age Of Reason , and in particular the reaction to events surrounding the French Revolution of 1789, that conservatism began to rise as a distinct movement. Chanakya in India , Cicero in Rome , Confucius in China , and in France , the Counterreformation , all spoke out on the importance of political stability and traditional values. But it was not until Edmund Burke’s polemic '' Reflections On The Revolution In France '' that conservatism gained its most influential statement of views. Anglo-Irish statesman Edmund Burke , who argued so forcefully against the French Revolution , also sympathized with some of the aims of the American Revolution . This classical conservative tradition often insists that conservatism has no ideology, in the sense of a Utopia n program, with some form of master plan. Burke developed his ideas in reaction to the 'enlightened' idea of a society guided by abstract reason. Although he did not use the term, he anticipated the critique of Modernism , a term first used at the end of the 19th century by the Dutch religious conservative Abraham Kuyper . Burke was troubled by the Enlightenment , and argued instead for the value of inherited institutions and customs. Some people, argued Burke, have less reason than others, and thus some people will make worse governments than others if they rely upon reason. To Burke, the proper formulation of government came not from abstractions such as " Reason ," but from time-honoured development of the state, piecemeal progress through experience and the continuation of other important societal institutions such as the family and the Church. "''We are afraid to put men to live and trade each on his own private stock of reason, because we suspect that this stock in each man is small, and that the individuals would do better to avail themselves of the general bank and capital of nations and ages. Many of our men of speculation, instead of exploding general prejudices, employ their sagacity to discover the latent wisdom which prevails in them. If they find what they seek, and they seldom fail, they think it more wise to continue the prejudice, with the reason involved, than to cast away the coat of prejudice, and to leave nothing but naked reason; because prejudice, with its reason, has a motive to give action to that reason, and an affection which will give it permanence.''" Burke argued that tradition is a much sounder foundation than 'metaphysical abstractions.' Tradition draws on the wisdom of many generations and the tests of time, while "reason" may be a mask for the preferences of one man, and at best represents only the untested wisdom of one generation. Any existing value or institution has undergone the correcting influence of past experience and ought to be respected. Also, Burke claims that man is unable to understand the many ways in which inherited behaviours influence their thinking, so trying to judge society objectively is futile. However, conservatives do not reject change. As Burke wrote, "A state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation." But they insist that further change be organic, rather than revolutionary. An attempt to modify the complex web of human interactions that form human society, for the sake of some doctrine or theory, runs the risk of running afoul of the iron law of Unintended Consequence s. Burke advocates vigilance against the possibility of Moral Hazard s. For conservatives, human society is something rooted and organic; to try to prune and shape it according to the plans of an ideologue is to invite unforeseen disaster. Conservatives strongly support the right of property. Carl B. Cone, in ''Burke and the Nature of Politics'', Carl B. Cone, ''Burke and the Nature of Politics'', University of Kentucky Press, 1957 pointed out that this view, expressed as philosophy, also served the interests of the people involved. "As Burke had declared…this law ... encroached upon property rights... . To the eighteenth century Whig, nothing was more sacred than the rights of property, ... the protest could not be entirely frank, and it masked personal interests behind lofty principles. These principles were not hypocritically pronounced, but they did not reveal the financial interests of Rockingham, Burke, and other persons who opposed the East India legislation as members of parliament, as holders of East India stock..." Benjamin Disraeli , himself a member of the Conservative Party in England, wrote in 1845, "A conservative government is an organized hypocrisy." The comment was provoked when the Conservative Party split into two groups, based on whether or not they would personally profit from the repeal of the Corn Laws .Speech on Agricultural Interests, March 17, 1845 At the end of the Napoleonic period, the , Joseph De Maistre was the most influential spokesperson for Counter-revolutionary and authoritarian conservatism, with the emphasis on monarchy as a guarantee of order in society. The Legitimist movement was the political incarnation of this thought. SCHOOLS OF CONSERVATISM Cultural conservatism See Also: Cultural conservatism Cultural conservatism is a philosophy that supports preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture. The culture in question may be as large as and Feudalism , as well as Capitalism , Laicité and the Rule Of Law . According to the subset called Social Conservatives , the norms may also be moral. For example, in some cultures practices such as Homosexuality are thought to be wrong. In other cultures women who expose their faces or limbs in public are considered immoral, and conservatives in those cultures often support laws to prohibit such practices. Other conservatives take a more positive approach, supporting good samaritan laws, or laws requiring public charity, if their culture considers these acts moral. Cultural conservatives often argue that old institutions have adapted to a particular place or culture and therefore ought to persevere. Depending on how universalizing (or skeptical) they are, cultural conservatives may or may not accept cultures that differ from their own. Many conservatives believe in a universal morality, but others allow that moral codes may differ from nation to nation, and only try to support their moral code within their own culture. That is, a cultural conservative may doubt whether the broad ideals of French communities would be equally appropriate in Germany. Religious conservatism Religious conservatives seek to preserve the teachings of some particular religion, sometimes by proclaiming the value of those teachings, at other times seeking to have those teachings given the force of law. Religious conservatism may support, or be supported by, secular customs. In other places or at other times, religious conservatism may find itself at odds with the culture in which the believers reside. In some cultures, there is conflict between two or more different groups of religious conservatives, both strongly asserting that their view is correct, and opposing views are wrong. Conservative governments influenced by religious conservatives may promote broad campaigns for a return to traditional values. Modern examples include the Back To Basics campaign of British Prime Minister, John Major . In the European Union , a conservative campaign sought to constitutionally specify certain conservative values in the proposed European Constitution . Because many religions preserve a founding text the possibility of Radical Religious Conservatism arises. These are radical both in the sense of abolishing the status quo and of a perceived return to the radix or root of a belief. They are ante conservative in their claim to be preserving the belief in its original or pristine form. Radical Religious Conservatism generally sees the status quo as corrupted by abuses, corruption, or heresy. One example of such a movement was the Protestant Reformation . In Islam , the Salafi st movement is often politically and socially radical, and is violently repressed by governments and distrusted by the majority of mainstream Muslims for that reason. Salafism seeks to impose, by force if necessary, its vision of a model Islamic society such as existed at the time of Muhammad 's passing from this world and for a short time thereafter. It rejects the later developments of Islamic societies, and can therefore be classified as a radical religious conservatism. Salafi Islam , globalsecurity.org Similar phenomena have arisen in practically all the world's religions, in many cases triggered by the violent cultural collision between the traditional society in question and the modern Western society that has developed throughout the world over the past 500 years. Much of what is labelled as radical religious conservatism in the modern world is in fact an indigenous fusion of traditional religious ideals with modern, European revolutionary philosophy, sometimes Marxist in nature. Fiscal conservatism Fiscal Conservatism is the economic philosophy of prudence in government spending and debt. Edmund Burke, in his ' Reflections On The Revolution In France ', articulated its principles: ''... is to the property of the citizen, and not to the demands of the creditor of the state, that the first and original faith of civil society is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior in time, paramount in title, superior in equity. The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of a participation in the goods of some community, were no part of the creditor's security, expressed or implied...[T he public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large.'' In other words, a government does not have the right to run up large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer; the taxpayers' right not to be taxed oppressively takes precedence even over paying back debts a government may have imprudently undertaken. IDEOLOGICAL INTERACTION AND INFLUENCE Many forms of conservatism incorporate elements of other Ideologies and philosophies. In turn, conservatism has influence upon them. Most conservatives strongly support the Nation-state (although that was not so in the 19th century), and Patriotically identify with their own nation. Nationalist Separatist movements may be both radical and conservative. They appeal to tradition and often emphasise rural life and Folkways . Patriotism Conservative Patriotism is sometimes expressed in the words of American naval hero Stephen Decatur, Jr. who said, "Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but right or wrong, our country!" The nation or, at an earlier time, the City State , is seen as a major force safeguarding traditional values and preserving the very life and freedom of its citizens. Value conservatives in Europe appeal to national values. Burkean conservatives value them for their own sake, because they are the result of long experience, but the patriotic impulse also has a strong emotional appeal, as illustrated by the famous Sir Walter Scott quotation, "Breathes there a man, with soul so dead, who never to himself has said, this is my own, my native land!" Most patriots appeal to national symbolism - the National Flag , national historical icons, founders and emblems, the works of national poets and authors, or the representation of the nation by its artists. Conservatives often express admiration of the patriotic values of Duty , and Sacrifice . Conversely, some conservatives say that to defend their nation's way of life, they may need to criticize or even oppose the existing regime. For example, G. K. Chesterton responded to Decatur in ''The Defendant'', saying ""My country, right or wrong," is a thing that no patriot would think of saying except in a desperate case. It is like saying, "My mother, sober or drunk." Further, Paleoconservatives and others say that in this era of the Managerial State , there is no clear consensus on what institutions should be conserved; therefore, the term ''conservative'' has little relevant meaning today. Conservatism and economics The phrases "economic liberal" and "economic conservative" seem to be synonymous, encompassing modern , Ordoliberalism , or Friedrich List's National System . The latter view differs from strict Laissez-faire in that the state's role is to promote competition while maintaining the national interest, community and identity. Outside the United States, "liberal" often refers only to free-market policies. For example, in Europe "liberal-conservative" is an accepted term. Differences in meaning and usage of the terms "liberal" and "conservative" have contributed to a great deal of confusion, and often the words seem to be used with no more meaning than "us" and "them". Conservatives and classical liberals are "allied against the common enemy, socialism," but classical liberals are "more suspicious than conservatives of all but the most minimal government."Quinton, Anthony. ''Conservativism'', A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p. 246.''' CONSERVATISM IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES In western democracies, 'conservative' and 'right-wing' are often used interchangeably, as near-. (Although left-wing groups and individuals may have conservative social and cultural attitudes, they are not generally accepted, by self-identified conservatives, as part of the same movement). On economic policy and the economic system, conservatives and the right generally support the free market, although less so in Europe than in other places. Attitudes on some ethical and Bio-ethical issues — such as opposition to abortion — are described as either 'right-wing' or 'conservative'. Burkean conservatives favour incremental over radical change, even from the right. Most conservatives distrust the Xenophobic and even Racist sentiments prominent on the political right, just as most socialists distrust the communistic sentiments prominent on the political left. Protectionism and anti-immigration policies may conflict with free-market conservatives' support for deregulation and Free Trade . Some conservatives oppose military interventionism, inspired by early British conservative thinkers, such as David Hume and Edmund Burke . Burke saw Imperialism as interfering with the traditions and organic make-up of the colonised societies. The overlap between 'respectable' conservatives and the extreme right is determined by the degree of political taboo, rather than inherent ideological incompatibility. In European parliamentary systems, conservatives currently ally with centrist or even leftist groups, rather than with the xenophobic-populist right, although critics have contended that the conservatives are taking in far-right ideas. For example, in December 2005, '' Le Canard Enchaîné '' claimed that Nicolas Sarkozy had implemented almost all of the far-right '' Front National '' (FN) measures proposed in its election program. All mainstream parties in Belgium cooperated to exclude the Flemish- Separatist and xenophobic '' Vlaams Belang '', although some politicians wish to break this 'cordon sanitaire'. And mainstream parties in France sometimes support each others' candidates in run-off elections, to exclude the ''Front National'' party. However, in March 1977, and then March 1983, FN was present on RPR - UDF lists at municipal elections; in 1988, RPR and UDF right-wing conservative parties allied with FN in the Bouches-du-Rhône and Var regions. In March 1989, they had common lists in at least 28 cities of more than 9 000 inhabitants. Those alliances were condemned in 1991, but a dozen conservative deputies gained FN's support in 1997. North America
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