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According to a recent and the United Kingdom ranked lowest among rich nations with respect to the well being of their children. This study also found that child neglect and child abuse are far more common in single-parent families than in families where both parents are present. There are many forms of abuse and neglect and many governments have developed their own ''legal'' definition of what constitutes child maltreatment for the purposes of removing a child and/or prosecuting a criminal charge. In the United States, the Federal Government puts out a full definition of child abuse and neglect and creates a summary of each State definition. To view, go to Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect: Summary of State Laws {Link without Title} that is part of the 2005 State Statute series by the Child Welfare Information Gateway. EFFECTS OF CHILD ABUSE Child abuse in its various forms has numerous effects and consequences, both tangible and intangible, upon society, those mistreated, and those entrusted with the responsibility of its detection, prevention and treatment. Effects on the child and development The U.S. National Adoption Center found that 52% of adoptable children (meaning those children in U.S. Foster Care ) freed for Adoption had symptoms of Attachment Disorder . A study by Dante Cicchetti found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants exhibited attachment disorder symptoms (disorganized subtype). Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1995). Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants’ attachments to their caregivers. In D. Cicchetti& V. Carlson (Eds), Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 135-157). NY: Cambridge University Press. Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E.M., Greenberg, M.T., & Marvin, R.S. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years (pp. 3-50). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Children with histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect and physical abuse are at risk of developing severe Psychiatric problems. Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff, J. (1996). Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning. Child Abuse and Neglect 20, 549-559 Malinosky-Rummell, R. & Hansen, D.J. (1993) Long term consequences of childhood physical abuse. Psychological Bulletin 114, 68-69 These children are likely to develop Reactive Attachment Disorder . Lyons-Ruth K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999) Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment. (pp. 520-554). NY: Guilford Press Greenberg, M. (1999). Attachment and Psychopathology in Childhood. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.). Handbook of Attachment (pp.469-496). NY: Guilford Press These children may be described as experiencing trauma-attachment problems. The trauma experienced is the result of abuse or neglect, inflicted by a primary caregiver, which disrupts the normal development of secure attachment. Such children are at risk of developing a disorganized attachment. Lyons-Ruth K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999) Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment. (pp. 520-554). NY: Guilford Press Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.) (1999). Attachment Disorganization. NY: Guilford Press Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parents’ Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status. In M.T. Greenberg, D. Ciccehetti, & E.M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention (pp161-184). Chicago: University of Chicago Press Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms, Carlson, E.A. (1988). A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment. Child Development 69, 1107-1128 as well as anxiety, depressive, and acting-out symptoms. Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64, 64-73 Lyons-Ruth, K., Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom. Child Development 64, 572-585 CAUSES OF CHILD ABUSE There are many causes of child abuse. Many child abusers were themselves victims of abuse. Mental illness is another common factor, with many abusers have personality disorder or other severe forms of mental illness. Psychosocial factors also play a role. Parental choices and other unforeseen circumstances that place families under extraordinary stress ― for instance, poverty, divorce, sickness, disability, lack of parental skills and drugs are often associated to child maltreatment. Children in families that have a parent deployed in combat are also more likely to be victims of child maltreatment. Many of these factors may contribute to family stress that can result in child abuse or neglect. Understanding the root causes of abuse can help better determine the best methods of prevention and treatment. There are four primary categories as to why people harm their children. Intergenerational transmission of violence, social stress, social isolation and low community involvement, and family structure. PREVENTION Given these possible causes, most professionals agree that there are three levels of prevention services; primary prevention, secondary prevention, and tertiary prevention. Primary prevention Primary prevention consists of activities that are targeted at the community level. These activities are meant to impact families prior to any allegations of abuse and neglect. Primary prevention services include public education activities, parent education classes that are open to anyone in the community, and family support programs. Primary prevention can be difficult to measure because you are attempting to impact something before it happens, an unknown variable. Secondary prevention Secondary prevention consists of activities targeted to families that have one or more risk factors including families with substance abuse, teen parents, parents of special need children, single parents, and low income families. Secondary prevention services include parent education classes targeted for high risk parents, respite care for parents of a child with a disability, or home visiting programs for new parents. Tertiary prevention Tertiary prevention consists of activities targeted to families that have confirmed or unconfirmed child abuse and neglect reports. These families have already demonstrated the need for intervention, with or without court supervision. Prevention supporters consider 'tertiary prevention' synonymous with treatment and entirely different from prevention through family support. TREATMENT Treatment for those experiencing Complex Post-traumatic Stress Disorder , which is caused by early chronic maltreatment, should address each dimension. Often treatment must be multi-modal. Children who have experienced complex trauma caused by chronic maltreatment can be treated effectively with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy interventions, education, EMDR and other approaches can be effectively used. CHILD ABUSE PREVENTION ORGANIZATIONS Childhelp USA Founded in 1959 by Sara O'Meara and Yvonne Fedderson, Childhelp USA is one of the largest and oldest national nonprofit organizations dedicated to the prevention of child abuse, neglect as well as to the treatment of its victims in the United States . Childhelp's programs, which directly serve abused children and their families, focus on meeting the children's physical, emotional, educational and spiritual needs. In 2005, O'Meara and Fedderson were both nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize . C.A.S. Children's Aid Societies in Canada The children's aid society (CAS) , also known as Family And Children's Services (F&CS), is a non-profit agency working in local communities to provide help and support to children and their families in Canada. Ontario Association of Children Aid Societies ISPCAN (International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect) The International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, founded in 1977, is the only multidisciplinary international organization that brings together a worldwide cross-section of committed professionals to work towards the prevention and treatment of child abuse, neglect and exploitation globally. Children of the Underground Founded in the early 1980s by Faye Yager , the organization was dedicated to help mothers or fathers whose spouses had allegedly sexually abused their children. Yager's organization gained notoriety for her attempts at helping these parents escape or stop their spouses from having access to their endangered child and/or putting the accused parent behind bars. The organization is reportedly disbanded. Thursday's Child Founded in 1982, Thursday's Child 's hotline, 1 800 USA KIDS remains the only child abuse hotline listing with toll-free 800 directory, in the United States . Its website also maintains the only complete list of state child abuse reporting numbers on the Internet. SPARC (Society for the Protection of the Rights of the Child) Silentlambs Silentlambs {Link without Title} provide therapy, education, and a venue for speaking out to family and friends, and reporting child molesters to proper authorities. This is done in order to help abused individuals and prevent further abuse to other children. REPORTING OF CHILD ABUSE Authorities See Also: Child Protective Services Depending on the country, the agencies responsible for investigating child abuse are either managed nationally, regionally, or locally. These agencies may be called Child Protective Services (CPS), Department of Children and Family Services (DCFS), or by other similar names. In the U.S., these agencies are usually listed in the state government section of the telephone book under "Children" or "Health" or "Human Services". In a few instances in the U.S., some of the functions of these agencies are outsourced to private individuals or companies. People who investigate claims of child abuse may be called a "children's Social Worker " (CSW) or a case worker. Reporting abuse and neglect in Australia Child abuse and neglect is the subject of Mandatory Reporting in most Australian jurisdictions. Usually professional people such as doctors, nurses and teachers are bound to report strong evidence of abuse or neglect. State authorities, such as the Child Protection Unit of the Department of Human Services (Victoria), have statutory authority to investigate and deal with child abuse. A document from Child Protection and Family Services, in Melbourne states: "The service system is facing escalating and changing demand pressures and we are increasingly aware of growing client complexity. Too many children, young people and families are coming back into the child protection system on a repeat basis with services making little impact on their issues. The analysis confirms this and identifies the need for a strategic rethink if we are to achieve better outcomes for vulnerable children, young people and their families. " Integrated Strategy for Child Protection and Placement Services Reporting Abuse in the UK All professionals who work with children, such as teachers, health professionals and so forth are required by professional codes of conduct to report to social services (or the police as appropriate) any 'concern' (neglect, physical, sexual or emotional abuse) regarding a child's welfare. The police and social services operate a multi-agency approach in cases of serious abuse. This system started in the 1960s following the death of Maria Colwell, but was insufficiently effective and a number of notorious cases over the years have resulted in several major overhauls of the system, the most recent being following the death of Victoria Climbie in 2000. Social Service departments, organised regionally, are required to investigate reports of abuse, keep records and take appropriate action to protect children. This can range from the provision of advice and support to families through to immediate removal under an Emergency Protection Order, and Care proceedings which may result in permanent placement of the child outside the family. In care proceedings the welfare of the child is paramount and all information affecting the welfare of a child must be disclosed by professionals, including lawyers, regardless of their clients' interests. NOTABLE INCIDENTS OF CHILD ABUSE
SEE ALSO
REFERENCES On the history of child abuse and attempts to protect children, see Linda Gordon, "Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence," NY, Penguin, 1988, and Champaign, IL., Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003. EXTERNAL LINKS
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