:''Canaanites redirects here. For the 1940's social and political movement in Israel , see Canaanites (Movement) .
See Also: Phoenicians
(n coast and into Upper Galilee . Many earlier Egyptian sources also make mention of numerous campaigns conducted in ''Ka-na-na'', just inside Asia.
Various Canaanite sites have been excavated by archaeologists, most notably the Canaanite town of .
The name ''Canaan'' is of obscure origins, with one possibility being the non-Semitic Hurrian "Knaa" or Akkadian ''Kinahhu'', referring to the rich purple dye produced from the Murex snail. The first known references appear in the 2nd Millennium BC , possibly from Hurrian sources in the Mesopotamian city of Nuzi .
Another etymology is straightforward. "Can" means low as "Aram" means high. A straightforward meaning of Canaan is "lowland." This was first applied to the lowland or classical Phoenicia , mainly Sidon, then by extension to the whole region.[http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/words.pl?book=Gen&chapter=9&verse=18&strongs=03667&page=
- k-n- Canaan ''', the son of Ham and the grandson of Noah , whose offspring correspond to the names of various ethnic groups in the land of Canaan, listed in the " Table Of Nations " (), where Sidon is named as his firstborn son, to be subdued by the descendents of Shem.
The eponym Ham {Link without Title} merely means "Hot" or "Red" in Hebrew or Canaanite. Some authors reason that the attribution was made because the Canaanite coast but not the interior was under Egyptian domination for several centuries. Asimov, Isaac , '' Asimov's Guide To The Bible '', Volume I, Page 44, Avon 1971
Certain scholars of the Eblaite material (dated 2350 BC) from the archive of Tell Mardikh see the oldest reference to Canaanites in the ethnic name ''"ga-na-na"''which provides a third millennium reference to the name CanaanTubb, Johnathan N. (!998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past) p.15.
Canaan is mentioned in a document from the 18th Century BC found in the ruins of Mari , a former Sumer ian outpost in Syria. Apparently Canaan at this time existed as a distinct political entity (probably a loose confederation of city-states). A letter from this time complains about certain ''"thieves and Canaanites (i.e. Kinahhu)"'' causing trouble in the town of RahisumTubb, Johnathan N. (!998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past).
In the 19th Century E. SchraderSCHRADER, E. Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, vol II (1888), pp. 299ff. associated Hammurabi with the Amraphel of ''Genesis'', but according to ''The Oxford Companion to the Bible'', this view has been largely abandoned since the 1930s when the Babylonian state was mapped accurately, showing that it did not include more than the left bank of the Euphrates.The Oxford Companion to the Bible.
Tablets found in the Mesopotamian city of Nuzi use the term ''Kinahnu'' ("Canaan") as a synonym for red or purple dye, produced from Murex shells on the Mediterranean coast, apparently a renowned Canaanite export commodity. The dyes were likely named after their place of origin (much as " Champagne " is both a product, and the name of the region where it is produced). The name 'Phoenicia' is connected with the Greek word for "purple", apparently referring to the same product, but it is difficult to state with certainty whether the Greek word came from the name, or ''vice versa''. The purple cloth of Tyre in Phoenicia was well known far and wide and long associated with royalty.
Anne Killebrew has shown how cities such as Jerusalem were large and important walled settlements in the Middle Bronze IIB and Iron Age IIC periods (ca. 1800-1550 and 720-586 BCE), but that during the intervening Late Bronze (LB) and Iron Age I and IIA/B Ages sites like Jerusalem were small and relatively insignificant and unfortified townsKillebrew Ann E. "Biblical Jerusalem: An Archaeological Assessment" in Andrew G. Vaughn and Ann E. Killebrew, eds., "Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period" (SBL Symposium Series 18; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003).
- kn'ny''), suggesting that the people of Ugarit, contrary to much modern opinion, considered themselves to be non-CanaaniteTubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past) p.16.
Archaeological excavations of a number of sites, later identified as Canaanite, show that prosperity of the region reached its apogee during this Middle Bronze Age period, under leadership of the city of Hazor , at least nominally tributary to Egypt for much of the period. In the north, the cities of Yamkhad and Qatna were Hegemons of important Confederacies , and it would appear that Biblical Hazor was the chief city of another important Coalition in the south. In the early Late Bronze Age, Canaanite confederacies were centred on Megiddo and Kadesh , before again being brought into the Egyptian Empire .
See Also: Pre-history of the Southern Levant
The urban development of Canaan lagged considerably behind that of Egypt and Mesopotamia and even Syria, where from ca. 3500 BC a sizable city developed at , possibly the people later known in the Biblical tradition as Horites .
John Bright[Bright, John (2000) "A History of Israel" (John Knox Press Westminister)and William F. AlbrightAlbright, William F. "From Abraham to Ezra" have suggested that contact during the early Isin-Larsa period of Amorite states lies behind the Abraham stories of the patriarchal traditions. However, since the critiques of Jon Van Seters and Thomas L. Thompson, these views have failed to find a consensus.]
Today it is thought that Canaanite civilisation is a response to long periods of stable climate interrupted by short periods of Climate Change . During these periods, Canaanites profited from their intermediary position between the ancient civilisations of the Middle East — Ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia and Minoan Crete — to become city states of merchant princes along the coast, with small kingdoms specialising in agricultural products in the interior. This polarity, between coastal towns and agrarian hinterland, was illustrated in Canaanite mythology by the struggle between the storm god, variously called Teshub ( Hurrian ) or Ba'al Hadad ( Aramaean ) and Ya'a, Yaw, Yahu Or Yam , god of the sea and rivers. Small walled market towns characterised early Canaanite civilisation surrounded by peasant farmers growing a range of local Horticultural Products , along with commercial growing of Olives , Grapes for Wine , and Pistachios , surrounded by extensive Grain cropping, predominantly Wheat and Barley . Harvest in early summer was a season when Transhumance Nomadism was practiced — shepherds staying with their flocks during the wet season and returning to graze them on the harvested stubble, closer to water supplies in the summer. Evidence of this cycle of agriculture is found in the Gezer Calendar and in the Biblical cycle of the year.
Periods of rapid climate change generally saw a collapse of this mixed Mediterranean farming system; commercial production was replaced with Subsistence Agriculural foodstuffs; and transhumance Pastoralism became a year-round nomadic pastoral activity, whilst tribal groups wandered in a circular pattern north to the Euphrates, or south to the Egyptian delta with their flocks. During the periods of the collapse of Akkad and the First Intermediary Period in Egypt, the Hyksos invasions and the end of the Middle Bronze Age in Babylonia, and the Late Bronze Age collapse, trade through the Canaanite area would dwindle, as Egypt and Mesopotamia withdrew into their isolation. When the climates stabilised, trade would resume firstly along the coast in the area of the Philistine and Phoenician cities. The Philistines, while an integral part of the Canaanite milieu, do not seem to have been ethnically homogenous with the Canaanites; the Hurrians , Hittites , Aramaeans , Moab ites, and Ammon ites are also considered distinct from generic Canaanites or Amorites, in scholarship or in tradition. As markets redeveloped, new trade routes that would avoid the heavy tariffs of the coast would develop from Kadesh Barnea , through Hebron , Lachish , Jerusalem , Bethel , Samaria , Shechem , Shiloh through Galilee to Jezreel , Hazor and Megiddo . Secondary Canaanite cities would develop in this region. Further economic development would see the creation of a third trade route from Eilath , Timna , Edom ( Seir ), Moab , Ammon and thence to Damascus and Palmyra . Earlier states (for example the Philistines and Tyrians in the case of Judah and Israel , for the second route, and Judah and Israel for the third route) tried generally unsuccessfully to control the interior trade.
Eventually, the prosperity of this trade would attract more powerful regional neighbours, such as Ancient Egypt , Assyria , the Babylonians , Persians , Ancient Greeks and Romans , who would attempt to control the Canaanites politically, levying tribute, taxes and tariffs. Often in such periods, thorough overgrazing would result in a climatic collapse and a repeat of the cycle (eg. PPNB , Ghassulian , Uruk , and the Bronze Age cycles already mentioned). The fall of later Canaanite civilisation occurred with the incorporation of the area into the Greco-Roman world (as Iudaea province), and after Byzantine times, into the Arab Ottoman and Abbasid Caliphate s. Aramaic , one of the two Lingua Franca e of Canaanite civilisation, is still spoken in a number of small Syria n villages, whilst Phoenician Canaanite disappeared as a spoken language in about 100 AD.
as '''' on the Merneptah Stele in the 13th Century BC ]]
During the in Syria near Turkey as part of the "Land of Canaan", so that the Egyptian usage seems to refer to the entire Levant ine coast of the Mediterranean Sea, making it a synonym of another Egyptian term for this coastland, ''.
There is uncertainty about whether the name ''Canaan'' refers to a specific ethnic group wherever they live, the homeland of this ethnic group, or a region under the control of this ethnic group, or perhaps any of the three.
At the end of what is referred to as the Middle Kingdom era of Egypt, was a breakdown in centralised power, the assertion of independence by various Nomarchs and the assumption of power in the Delta by Pharaohs of the 17th Dynasty. Around 1674 BC , these rulers, whom the Egyptians referred to as "rulers of foreign lands" (Egyptian, ''''), hence " Hyksos " (Greek), came to control Lower Egypt (northern Egypt), evidently leaving Canaan an ethnically diverse land.
Among the migrant tribes who appear to have settled in the region were the and Ashtaroth , east of the Jordan. However, in other passages such as Gen. 15:16, 48:22, Josh. 24:15, Judg. 1:34, etc., the name ''Amorite'' is regarded as synonymous with "Canaanite" — only "Amorite" is never used for the population on the coast.
In Egyptian inscriptions ''Amar'' and ''Amurru'' are applied strictly to the more northerly mountain region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes . In the Akkadian Empire, as early as Naram-Sin 's reign (ca. 2240 BC), ''Amurru'' was called one of the "four quarters" surrounding Sumer, along with Subartu , Akkad , and Elam , and Amorite dynasties also came to dominate in Mesopotamia, including at Babylon and Isin. Later on, ''Amurru'' became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as for northerly Canaan. At this time the Canaanite area seemed divided between two confederacies, one centred upon Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley , the second on the more northerly city of Kadesh on the Orontes River .
In the centuries preceding the appearance of the Biblical Hebrews, Canaan and Syria became tributary to the Egyptian Pharaoh s, although domination by the sovereign was not so strong as to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city struggles. Under Thutmose III ( 1479 – 1426 BC ) and Amenhotep II ( 1427 – 1400 BC ), the regular presence of the strong hand of the Egyptian ruler and his armies kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal. Nevertheless, Thutmose III reported a new and troubling element in the population. Habiru or (in Egyptian) 'Apiru, are reported for the first time. These seem to have been Mercenaries , Brigands or Outlaws , who may have at one time led a settled life, but with bad-luck or due to the force of circumstances, contributed a rootless element of the population, prepared to hire themselves to whichever local mayor or princeling prepared to undertake their support. Although Habiru (a Sumerian ideogram glossed as "brigand" in Akkadian ), and sometimes '' Habiru '' (an Akkadian word) had been reported in Mesopotamia from the reign of Shulgi of Ur III , their appearance in Canaan appears to have been due to the arrival of a new state in Northern Mesopotamia based upon Maryannu Aristocracy of horse drawn Charioteer s, associated with the Indo-Aryan rulers of the Hurrians , known as Mitanni . The Habiru seem to have been more a social class than any ethnic group. One analysis shows that the majority were, however, Hurrian, though there were a number of Semites and even some Kassite adventurers amongst their number. The reign of Amenhotep III , as a result was not quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province, as Habiru/'Apiru contributed to greater political instability. It is believed that turbulent chiefs began to seek their opportunities, though as a rule could not find them without the help of a neighboring king. The boldest of the disaffected nobles was Aziru , son of Abdi-Ashirta , a prince of Amurru, who even before the death of Amenhotep III, endeavoured to extend his power into the plain of Damascus . Akizzi , governor of Katna -( Qatna ?) (near Hamath ), reported this to the Pharaoh, who seems to have sought to frustrate his attempts. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused infinite trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi , governor of Gubla (Gebal), not the least through transferring loyalty from the Egyptian crown to that of the expanding neighbouring Hittites under Suppiluliuma I .
Egyptian power in Canaan thus suffered a major setback when the Hittites (or Hatti ) advanced into Syria in the reign of Amenhotep III, and became even more threatening in that of his successor, displacing the Amurru and prompting a resumption of Semitic migration. Abd-Ashirta and his son Aziru, at first afraid of the Hittites, afterwards made a treaty with their king, and joining with other external powers, attacked the districts remaining loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals for aid to the distant Pharaoh, who was far too engaged in his religious innovations to attend to such messages.
In the el Amarna Letters (~1350 BC) sent by governors and princes of Canaan to their Egyptian overlord Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) in the 14th Century BC — commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna Tablets — we find, beside ''Amar'' and ''Amurru'' (Amorites), the two forms ''Kinahhi'' and ''Kinahni,'' corresponding to ''Kena''' and ''Kena'an'' respectively, and including Syria in its widest extent, as Eduard Meyer has shown. The letters are written in the official and diplomatic Akkadian Language , though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are also in evidence.
In the El Amarna Letters (~1350 BC), we meet with the Habiri in northern Syria. Itakkama wrote thus to the Pharaoh,
:"Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the cities of the king, my lord to the in the land of Kadesh and in Ubi . But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show myself subject to him; and I will expel the ."
Similarly Zimrida , king of Sidon -(named 'Siduna'), declared, "All my cities which the king has given into my hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri." The king of Jerusalem , Abdi-Heba , reported to the Pharaoh,
:"If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my lord."
Abdi-heba's principle trouble arose from persons called Iilkili and the sons of Labaya , who are said to have entered into a treasonable league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death at the siege of Gina . All these princes, however, maligned each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protested their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Itakkama (see above) accused of disloyalty, wrote thus to the Pharaoh,
:"Behold, I and my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my , and my Suti ?9 are at the disposal of the (royal) troops to go whithersoever the king, my lord, commands." El Amarna letter, EA 189.
Just after the Amarna period a new problem arose which was to trouble the Egyptian control of Canaan. Pharaoh Horemhab campaigned against ''" as the principle God amongst those living in the high country of Israel and Judah.
Some believe the "Habiru" signified generally all the nomadic tribes known as "Hebrews." and particularly the early Israelites, who sought to appropriate the fertile region for themselves, but the term was rarely used to describe the '' Shasu ''. Whether the term may also include other related peoples such as the Moabites , Ammonites and Edomites is uncertain. It may not be an Ethnonym at all; see the Habiru article for details.
The part of the book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible often called the Table Of Nations describes the Canaanites as being descended from an ancestor called Canaan (, ''Knaan''), saying ():
Canaan is the father of Sidon , his firstborn; and of the Hittites , Jebusites , Amorites , Girgashites , Hivites , Arkites , Sinites , Arvadites , Zemarites , and Hamathites . Later the Canaanite clans scattered, and the borders of Canaan reached the Mediterranean coast from Sidon toward Gerar as far as Gaza, and then around the Jordan Valley toward Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboiim, as far as Lasha.
The Sidon whom the Table identifies as the firstborn son of Canaan has the same name as that of the coastal city of Sidon, in Lebanon. This city dominated the Phoenicia n coast, and may have enjoyed hegemony over a number of ethnic groups, who are said to belong to the "Land of Canaan".
Similarly, Canaanite populations are said to have inhabited:
During the Canaanite Period of the Archaeology Of Israel , the cities of Canaan were ruled by vassals of the Egyptian Empire . The Table of Nations calls Canaan the "son of Ham", whose ethnicities, e.g. Egypt ("Mitzrayim"), are associated with Africa ().
A Biblical story involving Canaan seems to refer to the ancient discovery of the planted a vineyard, made wine but became drunk. While intoxicated, an Incident occurred involving him and his youngest son, Ham . Afterward, Noah cursed Ham's son Canaan (but not Ham, for reasons that are not stated) to a life of servitude. He is to serve his brothers (who were not cursed either due to the respect they exhibited towards their inebriated father) and also his uncles Shem and Japheth (). Noah's curse is typically interpreted to apply to the descendants of the mentioned figures. "Shem" includes the Israelites , Moabites , and Ammonites , who dominated the Canaanite inland areas around the Jordan Valley.
The Canaanites () are said to have been one of seven regional ethnic divisions or "nations" driven out before the Israelites following the Exodus . Specifically, the other nations include the Hittites , the Girgashites , the Amorites , the Perizzites , the Hivites , and the Jebusites ().
According to the '' Book Of Jubilees '', the Israelite conquest of Canaan, and the curse, are attributed to Canaan's steadfast refusal to join his elder brothers in Ham's allotment beyond the Nile, and instead "squatting" on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, within the inheritance delineated for Shem.
The Bible describes God cautioning the Israelites against the sexual idolatry of the Canaanites and their Fertility Cult (). Thus the Land of the Canaanites, defined as including these seven groups, was deemed suitable for conquest by the Israelites partly on moral grounds (). One of the 613 Mitzvot (precisely n. 596) prescribes that no inhabitants of the cities of six Canaanite nations, the same as mentioned in 7:1, minus the Girgashites, were to be left alive.
By the time of the Second Temple, "Canaanite" in Hebrew had come to be not an ethnic designation, so much as a general synonym for "merchant", as it is interpreted in, for example, .
It has been argued that the Israelites were themselves Canaanites, and that "historical Israel", as distinct from "literary" or "Biblical Israel" was a subset of Canaanite culture Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past) p.16. "Canaan" when used in this sense refers to the entire Ancient Near East ern Levant down to about 100 AD, including the kingdoms of Israel and JudahTubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past) p.16.
Unlike Mesopotamia or Ancient Egypt , where documentation exists that is rich and varied, the documentation about Canaan is very sparse. The only sources that come from inside the region are from Syria - with Bronze Age cuneiform archives of Ebla , Mari , Alalakh and Ugarit . Iron Age materials are even more scarce, as writing then was mostly on papyrus, of which, unlike Egypt, none of which has survived the humid climates of the most populous parts of the region.
The material of the Bible cannot be ignored historically, but ever since the ground-breaking publication of point of view). The writers or editors of these Biblical texts had access to a very wide variety of source materials Redford Donald B> "Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times"(Princeton Uni Press) pp.137ff"First the narratives represent a compilation of very many individual sources" (p.17) Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past), most of which were contemporary or near contemporary with the time of writing. These included religious and literary texts, songs, geographic and topographical information, traditional folk legends, propaganda and annalistic and chronological information of specific events. This material had an unknown and generally variable credibility Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past) p.17Soggin, J. Alberto (1985), "A History of Israel: from the beginnings to the Bar Kochba revolt" (SCM Press) pp.90-108. The intention of the writers was not to produce an objective modern historical accountWhitelam, Keith W. (1996), "The Invention of Ancient Israel: the silencing of Palestinian history" (Routledge) pp.52-57Anderson, G.W. (1966), "The History and Religion of Israel" (Oxford Uni Press)pp.15-21"Unfortnately there are serious problems with this Patriarchs Scheme. First it accepts impossibly long lifespans assigned to the patriarchs. Second it is internally inconsistent. Moses and Aaron were the fourth generation descendents of Jacobs son Levi... The 430 years assigned to slavery in Egypt is too much for the three generations from Levi to Moses, an average of 143 years" pp.2-3 ,McCarter, P. Kyle The Patriarchal Age: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob" in Shanks, Hershel (Ed)(1989), "Ancient Israel: A Short History from Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple" (SPCK), but instead to present a rationalisation for the theological and genealogical emergence of the monotheistic entity called Israel, bound in a specific covenant with a single divinity. Genesis was never intended to be a manual for archaeological excavation, as the anachronisms were of no concern to its contemporary audience, for whom the texts had meaningTubb, Johnathan N. (1998) "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past).
Confirmed archaeologically
- Ebrium , king of Ebla
- Ibbi-Sipish , his son, king of Ebla
- Ili-ilimma , father of Idrimi, king of Halab
- Idrimi , king of Alalakh
- Ammittamru I of Ugarit (Amarna letters)
- Niqmaddu II of Ugarit (Amarna letters) (1349 - 1315 BCE)
- Arhalba of Ugarit (1315-1313 BCE}
- Niqmepa of Ugarit (1313-1260 BCE}
- Ammittamru II of Ugarit (1260 - 1235 BCE)
- Ibiranu of Ugarit (1235 - 1220 BCE)
- Ammurapi of Ugarit (1215 -1185 BCE)
- Aziru , ruler of Amurru (Amarna letters)
- Labaya , lord of Shechem (Amarna letters)
- Abdikheba , mayor of Jerusalem (Amarna letters)
- Šuwardata , mayor of Qiltu (Amarna letters)
Biblical Characters
- Canaan, son of Ham (Gen. 10:6)
- Sidon , son of Canaan (Gen. 10:15)
- Heth , firstborn son of Canaan (Gen. 10:15)
- Cronos (Ilus), founder of Byblos according to Sanchuniathon
- Mamre , an Amorite chieftain (Gen. 13:18)
- Makamaron , king of Canaan (Jubilees 46:6)
- Sihon , king of Amorites (Deut 1:4)
- Og , king of Bashan (Deut 1:4)
- Adonizedek , king of Jerusalem (Josh. 10:1)
- Debir , king of Eglon (Josh. 10:3)
- Jabin , name of two kings of Hazor (Josh. 11:1; Judges 5:6)
Rulers of Tyre
Early on the Canaanites acquired fame as traders across a wide area beyond the Near East . There are occasional instances in the Hebrew Bible where "Canaanite" is used as a synonym for " Merchant " — presumably indicating the aspect of Canaanite culture that the authors found most familiar. The term was derived from the place name, because so many merchants described themselves as Canaanites.
One of Canaan's most famous exports was a much sought-after purple dye, derived from two species of Sea Snails found along the east Mediterranean coast and worn proudly by figures from ancient kings to modern popes.
Between ca. 1200 – 1100 BC , most of southern Canaan was settled, and according to the Bible conquered, by the Israelites , while the northern areas were taken over by Arameans . The remaining area still under clear Canaanite control, is referred to by its Greek name, " Phoenicia " (meaning "purple", in reference to the land's famous dye).
Much later, in the ". Quoting fragments attributed to Sanchuniathon , he relates that Byblos , Berytus and Tyre were among the first cities ever built, under the rule of the mythical Cronus , and credits the inhabitants with developing fishing, hunting, agriculture, shipbuiding and writing.
St. Augustine also mentions that one of the terms the seafaring Phoenicians called their homeland was "Canaan." This is further confirmed by coins of the city of Laodicea by the Lebanon , that bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in Canaan"; these coins are dated to the reign of Antiochus IV ( 175 – 164 BC ) and his successors.
The first of many Canaanites who emigrated seaward finally settled in Carthage , and St. Augustine adds that the country people near Hippo , presumably Punic in origin, still called themselves ''Chanani'' in his day.
See Also: Phoenicians
Genetic research using Y-chromosome haploid analysis has identified a Phoenician genetic marker (a so-to-speak ", Crusader Europeans , and Seljuk Turks . The American University Of Beirut launched the Phoenician genographic project to precisely map the genetic makeup of the Lebanese population and even the Mediterranean populations where ancient Canaanites colonized. A high-frequency of the Canaanite gene has even been detected in the Iberian Peninsula as well as in Malta , an island that Phoenicians colonized.
- [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articleshow.asp?ID=1765&cid=2&sid=1 The Origin of the Jewish People and the Land of Canaan] by David Storobin.
- Canaan & Ancient Israel , University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Explores their identities (land-time, daily life, economy & religion) in pre-historical times through the material remains that they have left behind.
- Catholic Encyclopedia .
- Canaan : reviews every scripture on Canaan in the Bible.
- Antiquities of the Jews by Flavius Josephus.
- The Amarna Letters Encyclopedia , excellent source on Egyptian province of Canaan.
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