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The Book of Abraham is a scriptural text for some denominations of the Latter Day Saint Movement . According to Joseph Smith, Jr. , the movement's founder, the text is a partial translation of the words of Abraham , in his own hand, written on a set of Egypt ian Papyri purchased by the religion in 1835 from a traveling Mummy show, although subsequent examination of those papyri has called that claim into question. The work was originally published in the Latter Day Saint Movement newspaper '' Times And Seasons '' together with facsimiles of vignettes from the papyrus, with Smith's interpretations. Later, it was republished as part of the '' Pearl Of Great Price '', which has been included in the Canon of The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-day Saints as one of its four scriptural works. According to Smith, the papyri recounts the story of Abraham's early life as well as a vision he received concerning the creation of the world. The book is a source of some distinctive and controversial Latter-day Saint doctrines such as the Exaltation of humanity, the Plurality Of Gods , Priesthood , Pre-mortal Existence , and Other Inhabited Worlds In The Cosmos . Some denominations of the Latter Day Saint Movement , such as the Community Of Christ , do not consider the book to be scripture. For many years the original papyri were considered lost. In 1966 eleven fragments of the papyri were found in the Metropolitan Museum Of Art in New York. Examination of these fragments by both Mormon and non-Mormon Egyptologists agree that these fragments contain Funerary Texts , dating to about the first century BC, that describe events in the afterlife of deceased Egyptians. ORIGIN OF THE BOOK OF ABRAHAM In July 1835, an Irishman named Michael Chandler brought a traveling exhibition of four Egyptian mummies and papyri to Kirtland, Ohio , then home of the Mormons. The papyri contained Egyptian Hieroglyphics .''History of the Church'', Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 236 As the Rosetta Stone had been discovered in 1799 and not completely deciphered, translations from the Egyptian language were not widely available until the 1850s. The ability to translate Egyptian hieroglyphs stems from the discovery in 1799 of the Rosetta Stone , a large granite tablet which contained a message written in two languages, Egyptian and Greek. Since Greek was well known, the stone made the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphs possible for the first time since antiquity. Joseph Smith, Jr. , the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was asked by Chandler to review the scrolls to give some insight into what was written on the papyrus - due to Smith's notoriety and claims to translate ancient records - the Golden Plates of the Book Of Mormon . After reviewing and giving Chandler a description of parts of the scrolls, Smith offered to purchase four mummies and the papyri for $2400, which was agreed upon. Upon examination, Smith declared that two of the scrolls contained the writings of Abraham and Joseph Of Egypt : ... with W.W. Phelps and Oliver Cowdery as scribes, I commenced the translation of some of the characters or hieroglyphics, and much to our joy found that one of the rolls contained the writings of Abraham, another the writings of Joseph of Egypt, etc. -- a more full account of which will appear in its place, as I proceed to examine or unfold them.''History of the Church'', Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 236. July 1835 During the remainder of July, Joseph Smith said that he ... was continually engaged in translating an alphabet to the Book of Abraham, and arranging a grammar of the Egyptian language as practiced by the ancients.''History of the Church'', Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 238 He proceeded to dictate a translation. In 1842 the text was published in serials in the Latter Day Saint newspaper '' Times And Seasons '' in Nauvoo, Illinois . In 1851, the Book of Abraham and other Mormon scriptures were compiled into a single volume called the Pearl Of Great Price . One faction of the Latter Day Saint movement, The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-day Saints adopted it as part of the church's canon on October 10 , 1880 .1 CONTENT OF THE BOOK OF ABRAHAM The Book of Abraham has five chapters. Chapters 1 through 2 include details about Abraham’s early life and his fight against the idolatry of his society and even of his own family. It recounts how pagan priests tried to sacrifice him to their god, but an angel appeared and rescued him. Chapter 2 includes information about God’s covenant with Abraham, and how it would be fulfilled. Chapters 3 through 5 are a vision in which God reveals much about astronomy, the creation of the world, and the creation of man.2 FACSIMILES OF THE BOOK OF ABRAHAM At least two artists, including woodcutter Reuben Hedlock created facsimiles of three funerary vignettes which were part of the papyri collection found with the mummies. These facsimiles, which include Hieroglyphics and Hieratic writing, were published in conjunction with the Book of Abraham in '' Times And Seasons ''. Joseph Smith offered a detailed explanation or interpretation of various elements of the ancient Egyptian iconography and writings. Non-LDS Egyptologists disagree with Smith's interpretations of these facsimiles.. See also and Some believe that under his direction missing or destroyed portions of the fragments were restored in order to make the image complete and aesthetically pleasing. Facsimile No. 1 According to Smith’s interpretation, this depicts the attempted human sacrifice of Abraham. Abraham is fastened to an altar with the “idolatrous priest of Elkenah” about to sacrifice him. He interpreted the four shapes underneath the altar as four idolatrous gods with the names Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, and Korash.3 Egyptologists note that the four shapes represent four Canopic Jars . The facsimile, they say, shows the embalming procedure or the creation of a Mummy . Canopic jars are used to hold the viscera of the mummified corpse. The Four Sons Of Horus are normally depicted on the jars, each son shown (from left to right) as a human, a baboon, a jackal, and a falcon, named Imset , Hapi , Duamatef and Qebehsenuf . Examples of such jars can be found in various art museums.For example, see 4 Facsimile No. 2 The figure represented by Facsimile 2 is called a Hypocephalus . In ancient Egyptian burials, it is placed under the head of the deceased in case he forgot some of the personalized detail needed to know what to say and how to behave in relation to 'gods' and trials after death. These personalized instructions often accompany the Book Of The Dead and Book of Breathings, and are a synopsis of information in the highly individualized Books of the Dead. No two hypocephali are the same. There is a very similar one (which appears to be nothing more than a copy of Smith's, with expanded translation) on this website: http://essenes.net/hypo.htm Other images or actual hypocephali may be found at http://www.bowers.org/mummies/spells_image5.html and http://essenes.net/hypo.htm. Although the latter site does not appear to be reliable, the image varies from the Book of Abraham hypocephalus. (since the plate is referred to as the "second facsimile of Abraham," and claim it is contained in the Pearl of Great Price, the name of a Mormon book of scripture, it seems this plate, and translation, are derived from Smith's)
Facsimile No. 3 Smith believed this image represents Abraham sitting on the Pharaoh 's throne teaching the principles of Astronomy to the Egyptian court. Smith stated that the figure behind "Abraham in Egypt" is "King Pharaoh, whose name is given in the characters above his head." The figure before "Abraham" is "Prince of Pharaoh, King of Egypt". The dark character is "Olimlah, a slave belonging to the prince" and in between is "Shulem, one of the king’s principal waiters".6 Egyptologists interpret this as the judgment of the dead before the occupied throne of the Egyptian god, Osiris .See for example 7 The picture of Osiris shows his typical headdress or crown and his arms are placed in a typical position in which he holds a sceptre and a flail. Examples can be found in several tombs.8 In front of Osiris, but with her face turned away, is Ma'at , the Egyptian goddess of justice, truth and order wearing her traditional feather on her head. LOSS AND REDISCOVERY OF THE PAPYRUS After Joseph Smith's death, the Egyptian artifacts were held principally by his mother, '' (Winter 1967), p. 64 These papyrus fragments, originally called the Sensen Papyrus, were designated Joseph Smith Papyrus {Link without Title} I, XI, and X. Egyptologist John A. Wilson stated that the recovered fragments indicate the existence of at least six to eight separate documents. It was clear that Smith had once owned these papyri because the back of the papyrus fragments were pasted down to paper with "drawings of a temple and maps of the Kirtland, Ohio area." There was also an affidavit from Emma Smith that these papyri had been in the possession of Joseph Smith.''The Deseret News '', Salt Lake City, November 27, 1967 With the rediscovery of these papyri, fragments of the original Egyptian text from which Joseph Smith translated the Book of Abraham appeared to have been recovered. Also the illustrations including the original of facsimile 1 were now available to professional Egyptologists for analysis. The Foundation For Ancient Research And Mormon Studies (FARMS), an institution supported by the church, is producing a series of conferences and publications on the Joseph Smith papyri and the Book of Abraham.''Insights'', FARMS newsletter, 9, vol. 24 issue 5, Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 2004 ANALYSIS OF THE PAPYRUS Upon the return of the papyri in November 1967, the LDS church asked '', Summer 1968, p. 67 and They produced translations that were published in the journal in 1968. The Joseph Smith Papyrus fragment containing facsimile 1 is divided into three parts. Klaus Baer was the first person to publish a translation of the writing flanking the original of facsimile 1. His translation is as follows: ... the prophet of Amonrasonter, prophet of Min Bull-of-his-Mother, prophet [? of Khons the Governor… Hor, justified, son of the holder of the same titles, master of secrets, and purifier of the gods Osorwer, justified [?]… Tikhebyt, justified. May your ba live among them, and may you be buried in the West…May you give him a good, splendid burial on the West of Thebes just like ... ''Hor'' is the name of the mummified deceased and ''Tikhebyt'' is the name of Hor’s mother. The '' Ba '' is his spirit. Updated translations consistent with Klaus Baer have been provided by others including BYU researcher Michael D. Rhodes, BYU Egyptologist, John Gee, John Gee, ''The Ancient Owners of the Joseph Smith Papyri'' Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1999 , 5 and another University of Chicago Egyptologist, Robert K. Ritner. The middle section of the Joseph Smith Papyrus fragment following facsimile 1 was initially translated by Richard Parker of Brown University. His translation is as follows: this great pool of Khonsu Hor, justified , born of Taykhebyt, a man likewise. After (his) two arms are to his breast, one wraps the Book of Breathings, which is with writing both inside and outside of it, with royal linen, it being placed (at) his left arm near his heart, this having been done at his wrapping and outside it. If this book be recited for him, then he will breathe like the soul[s of the gods for ever and ever.. Translations of this section have also been made by Baer, Nibley,Hugh Nibley, ''The Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri: An Egyptian Endowment'' Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1975 , 19-23 and Ritner and they are consistent with Parker's. For the third section, Klaus Baer noted that Hor’s Book of Breathings would end with facsimile 3, however the vignette is missing or lost in the original papyrus. Using the facsimile, the following translations have been made by Robert K. Ritner. Label for Osiris (text to the right of figure 1 of facsimile 3): Recitation by Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, Lord of Abydos (?), the great god forever and ever(?). Label for Isis (text to the right of figure 2 of facsimile 3): Isis the great, the god's mother. Label for Maat (text to the left of figure 4 of facsimile 3): Maat, mistress of the gods. Label for Hor the deceased (text in front of figure 5 of facsimile 3): The Osiris Hor, justified forever. Label for Anubis (text in front of figure 6 of facsimile 3): Recitation by Anubis, who makes protection(?), foremost of the embalming booth,... Invocation (text at bottom line below the illustration): O gods of the necropolis, gods of the caverns, gods of the south, north, west, and east grant salvation to the Osiris Hor, the justified, born by Taikhibit. The link of facsimile 3 with facsimile 1 and the papyrus scroll is established by the translation of the name of the deceased, ''Hor'' and the name of his mother, '' Taikhibit ''. Another translation of facsimile 3 has been made by Rhodes which is consistent with Ritner's. CRITICISM AND RESPONSE The identification of texts is used by critics as evidence against the Book of Abraham's authenticity. The main arguments are:
Mormon apologists have presented a number of theories in defense of the authenticity of the Book of Abraham. The most popular theories argue the following:
INTERPRETATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO MORMONISM The text of the Book of Abraham provides justification for important Latter-day Saint doctrines, including the Exaltation of man, Plurality Of Gods , Priesthood , and Pre-mortal Existence . Some of these justifications are not found in any of the other canonized scriptures of The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-day Saints . The Community Of Christ , formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS), has not accepted the Book of Abraham as canonical. In 1896, the leaders of the church at the time, Joseph Smith III and Herman C. Smith made the following observation on the Book of Abraham, The church has never to our knowledge taken any action on this work, either to indorse or condemn; so it cannot be said to be a church publication; nor can the church be held to answer for the correctness of its teaching. Joseph Smith, as the translator, is committed of course to the correctness of the translation, but not necessarily to the indorsement [''sic'' of its historical or doctrinal contents. Joseph Smith III and Herman C. Smith, ''The History of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints'', Vol. II, p. 569, Lamoni, Iowa: Herald Publishing House, 1896 The Community of Christ notes that the book's accuracy or inaccuracy does not actually have any bearing on Smith's claims to be a prophet, as it was brought about in a manner quite differently than the Book of Mormon; the various sections of the Doctrine and Covenants; and the Inspired Version of the Bible. It is further noted that Joseph Smith did not claim to have been commanded by the Lord to translate the source scrolls of the Book of Abraham, nor did he claim to have been granted any divine authority or power to do so. Smith did not claim to have used any unusual methods in its translation, and, unlike the other works named, its publication ''seems'' to be entirely secular. (see Question Time, Volume 1, page 75, Question #63, Herald House, 1975) Joseph Smith also did not order it canonized. The Community of Christ and many other LDS Restoration denominations reject it as scripture and have no official opinion on it as literature. This is also one explanation for the stark theological differences that persist between the Mormon church and other Latter Day Saint factions. SEE ALSO NOTES REFERENCES
EXTERNAL LINKS Neutral perspectives
Apologists' perspectives
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