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Alta California—covering the land that belongs to the modern-day US states of California , Nevada , Utah , northern Arizona , and southwestern Wyoming —gained independence from Spain in 1821 upon conclusion of the Mexican War Of Independence , following the war and short-lived inclusion in the First Empire (that Spain deemed illegal in 1822 ), but was not recognized as one of the newly independent United Mexican States . The 1824 Constitution refers to it as one of ''the territories''. Mexico lost control of the territory as a result of the Mexican-American War ( 1846 – 1848 ). War was declared by the US Congress due to actions in the Texas Republic after their annexation, and responding to calls from Northern California American residents striving for independence from Mexico City . US Army and US Navy forces entered into the territory and overpowered the remaining Mexican military units. In Southern California, the Californios formed a defensive army and were victorious after the Siege Of Los Angeles and at the Battle Of San Pascual , and the Battle Of Dominguez Rancho , fought indecisive encounters at the Battle Of Rio San Gabriel and the Battle Of La Mesa , but were then confronted by the American forces strategy of holding a great number of Californio civilians hostage, formally ended military actions with the signing of the Treaty Of Cahuenga on January 13 , 1847 . California was formally ceded to the United States in 1848 by the signing of the Treaty Of Guadalupe Hidalgo . The last Mexican Governor Of California was Pío Pico , who served until 1846. In the second half of the Nineteenth Century , there was a San Francisco -based Newspaper called ''The Daily Alta California'' (or ''The Alta Californian''). Mark Twain 's first widely successful book, '' The Innocents Abroad '', was an edited collection of letters written for this publication. LANDS UNDER SPANISH RULE See Also: Spanish missions in California Under Spanish rule, all lands in California were claimed by the king of Spain, who granted them to the Roman Catholic Church and to individuals. Specifically, the Spanish constructed and funded the missions for the Franciscan s of the Catholic Church to gather and convert the Native American people, presidios to house Spanish soldiers who would enforce the peace, and Spanish settlement lands. The presidios and missions were the first lands chosen and developed. By law, the mission land and property was to pass to the resident Native Americans of California after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish citizens. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Natives. The Franciscans, however, prolonged this power arrangement and ran the missions for more than 60 years.Beebe, 2001, page 71; Fink, 1972, pages 63-64. Once the Spanish began to send settlers to Northern California, a grey area began to grow over the future (and boundaries) of the mission properties. Property disputes arose over the mission (and adjacent) lands, between the Spanish Crown and the Catholic Church, and also between the Natives and the Spanish settlers: There were heated debates between the Spanish State and ecclesiastical bureaucracies over the government authority of the missions.Milliken, 1995, page 2 footnote. Setting a precedent, an interesting petition to the Governor in 1782, the Franciscan priests of Santa Clara claimed the "missions Indians" owned both land and cattle, and represented the Natives in a petition against the Spanish settlers of the San Jose Pueblo .Milliken,1995, page 72-73 The fathers mentioned the "Indians' crops" were being damaged by the San Jose settlers' livestock, and also mentioned settlers "getting mixed up with the livestock belonging to the Indians from the mission." They also stated the Mission Indians had property and rights to defend it.Milliken,1995, page 73, quoting Murguia and Pena {Link without Title} 1955:400. Under Spanish rule, Southern California and the Ranchos prospered and grew with the Missions. Californio cattle ranchers and the local people evolved into a different society from the northern American settlers of the fur trapper / mining economy that developed in the Sacramento River valley. This dichotomy of evolution was reflected during the Mexican-American War where the American immigrants of the north greedily coveted the property, lands and riches of the more prosperous Southern California Californios and their vast Ranchos. (Reference Historical California Adobes and Rancho San Pascual). FLAGS OVER CALIFORNIA RANCHOS OF CALIFORNIA See Also: Ranchos of California The Spanish (and later the Mexicans) encouraged settlement with large land grants which were turned into ranchos, where cattle and sheep were raised. Cow hides (at roughly $1 each) and fat (known as tallow, used to make candles as well as soaps) were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century. The owners of these ranchos styled themselves after the Landed Gentry in Spain. Their workers included some Native Americans who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses. SEE ALSO Spanish and Mexican control
Russian colonies United States control
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