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The post-invasion period in Iraq followed the 2003 Invasion Of Iraq by a Multinational Coalition led by the United States , which Overthrew the Ba'ath Party government of Saddam Hussein . This article covers the period starting May 1 , 2003 , after American president George W. Bush officially Declared the end of Major Combat Operations . MILITARY OCCUPATION A Military Occupation was established and run by the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), which later appointed and granted limited powers to an Iraq Interim Governing Council . Troops for the invasion came primarily from the United States, the United Kingdom and Poland , but twenty-nine other nations also provided some troops, and there were varying levels of assistance from Japan and other allied countries. Tens of thousands of private security personnel provided protection of infrastructure, facilities and personnel. Coalition and allied Iraqi forces have been fighting a stronger-than-expected militant , 2004 . Sovereignty was transferred to a Governing Council Iraqi Interim Government led by Iyad Allawi as Iraq's first post-Saddam prime minister; this government was not allowed to make new laws without the approval of the CPA. The Iraqi Interim Government was replaced as a result of the elections which took place in January 2005. A period of negotiations by the elected Iraqi National Assembly followed, which culminated on April 6 , 2005 with the selection of, among others, Prime Minister Ibrahim Al-Jaafari and President Jalal Talabani . The Prime Minister al-Jaafari led the majority party of the United Iraqi Alliance (UIA), a coalition of the al-Dawa and SCIRI (Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq) parties. Both parties are Tehran backed, and were banned by Saddam Hussein. Jalal Talabani is the long time leader of the Patriotic Union Of Kurdistan , one of the two main Kurdish parties. The three main Kurdish Provinces have extensive autonomy, with their own parliament. They have not experienced any considerable insurgency. Most Kurds welcomed the American invasion, and danced in the streets when Saddam was captured. Iraqi Kurdistan is experiencing an economic boom, with many expatriates returning home to take part in rebuilding the country that was devastated during the rule of Saddam Hussein. LEGAL STATUS OF THE COALITION PRESENCE The Multinational Forces still exercise considerable power in the country and, with the New Iraqi Army , conduct military operations against the Iraqi Insurgency . The role of Iraqi government forces in providing security is increasing. According to Article 42 of the , 1907 . The Avalon Project, Yale Law School The International Humanitarian Law Research Initiative states: "the wording of Security Council resolution 1546 . . . indicates that, regardless of how the situation is characterized, international humanitarian law will apply to it." Research Initiative Policy Brief (''ed''., concerning the application of international humanitarian law) :There may be situations... where the former occupier will maintain a military presence in the country, with the agreement of the legitimate government under a security arrangement (e.g., U.S. military presence in Japan and Germany). The legality of such agreement and the legitimacy of the national authorities signing it are subject to international recognition, whereby members of the international community re-establish diplomatic and political relations with the national government. In this context, it is in the interest of all the parties involved to maintain a clear regime of occupation until the conditions for stability and peace are created allowing the re-establishment of a legitimate national government. A post-occupation military presence can only be construed in the context of a viable, stable and peaceful situation.7 The Afterwards, the UN and individual nations established diplomatic relations with the Interim Government and began planning for elections and the writing of a new constitution. Despite the continuing insurgency, conditions were deemed stable enough to conduct elections, despite the objections of the United States government but pursuant to the insistence of Grand Ayatollah Sistani. John Negroponte, U.S. ambassador to Baghdad, has indicated that the United States government would comply with a , January 22 , 2005 On '', June 5 , 2007 The current UN mandate expires in December 2007.8 2003 Fall of Saddam Hussein's regime On May 1 , 2003 , President Bush declared the "end of major combat operations" in Iraq, while aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln with a large " Mission Accomplished " banner displayed behind him. The weeks following the removal of the Saddam Hussein regime were portrayed by American media as generally a euphoric time among the Iraqi populace. , 2004 . Insurgency begins In the summer of 2003, the U.S. military focused on hunting down the remaining leaders of the former regime, culminating in the killing of Saddam's sons Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein on July 22 . In all, over 200 top leaders of the former regime were killed or captured, as well as numerous lesser functionaries and military personnel. However, even as the Ba'ath party organization disintegrated, elements of the secret police and army began forming guerilla units, since in many cases they had simply gone home rather than openly fight the invading forces. These began to focus their attacks around Mosul , Tikrit and Fallujah . In the fall, these units and other elements who called themselves Jihadists began using ambush tactics, suicide bombings, and improvised explosive devices, targeting coalition forces and checkpoints. They favored attacking the unarmored Humvee vehicles, and in November they successfully attacked U.S. rotary aircraft with SA-7 missiles bought on the global black market. On August 19 , the UN Headquarters in Baghdad was destroyed in the Canal Hotel Bombing , killing at least 22 people, among them Sérgio Vieira De Mello , Special Representative of the UN Secretary General . Saddam captured and elections urged In December, Saddam himself was , January 19 , 2004 . More insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from Baghdad to Basra in the south. 2004 Spring uprisings In the spring, the United States and the and its activities. In Fallujah four private security contractors, working for Blackwater USA , were ambushed and killed, and their corpses desecrated. In retaliation a U.S. offensive was begun, but it was soon halted because of the protests by the Iraqi Governing Council and negative media coverage. A truce was negotiated that put a former Baathist general in complete charge of the town. The 1st Armored Division along with the 2nd ACR were then shifted south, because Spanish, Salvadorian, Italian, Ukrainian, and Polish forces were having increasing difficulties retaining control over Nasiriya , Al Kut and Najaf . The 1st Armored Division and 2nd ACR relieved the Spanish, Salvadorian, Poles and Italians, and put down the overt rebellion. At the same time, British forces in Basra were faced with increasing restiveness, and became more selective in the areas they patrolled. In all, April, May and early June represented the bloodiest months of fighting since the end of hostilities. The Iraqi troops who were left in charge of Fallujah after the truce began to disperse and the city fell back under insurgent control. In the April battle for Fallujah, U.S. troops killed about 200 resistance fighters, while 40 Americans died and hundreds were wounded in a fierce battle. U.S. forces then turned their attention to the al Mahdi Army in Najaf. Transfer of sovereignty In June, the United States transferred limited sovereignty to a caretaker government, whose first act was to begin the trial of Saddam Hussein . The government began the process of moving towards elections, though the insurgency, and the lack of cohesion within the government itself, led to repeated delays. Militia leader , August 20 , 2004 . Al-Sadr then declared a national cease fire, and opened negotiations with the American and government forces. His militia was incorporated into the Iraqi security forces and al-Sadr is now a special envoy. This incident was the turning point in the failed American efforts to install Ahmed Chalabi as leader of the interim government. The CPA then put Iyad Allawi in power, ultimately he was only marginally more popular than the convicted felon Chalabi. The Allawi government, with significant numbers of holdovers from the Coalition Provisional Authority , began to engage in attempts to secure control of the oil infrastructure, the source of Iraq's foreign currency, and control of the major cities of Iraq. The continuing insurgencies, poor state of the Iraqi Army, disorganized condition of Police and security forces, as well as the lack of revenue hampered their efforts to assert control. In addition, both former Baathist elements and militant Shia groups engaged in sabotage, terrorism, open rebellion, and establishing their own security zones in all or part of a dozen cities. The Allawi government vowed to crush resistance, using U.S. troops, but at the same time negotiated with Muqtada al-Sadr. Offensives and counteroffensives Beginning , 2005 . The Marine was later cleared of any wrongdoing because the Marines had been warned that the enemy would sometimes feign death and booby-trap bodies as a tactic to lure Marines to their deaths. November was the deadliest month of the occupation for coalition troops, surpassing April. Another offensive was launched by insurgents during the month of November in Mosul . U.S. forces backed by peshmerga fighters launched a counteroffensive which resulted in the Battle Of Mosul (2004) . The fighting in Mosul occurred concurrently with the fighting in Fallujah and attributed to the high number of American casualties taken that month. In December, 14 American soldiers were killed and over a hundred injured when an explosion struck an open-tent mess hall in Mosul , where President Bush had spent Thanksgiving with troops the year before. The explosion is believed to have come from a suicide bomber. 2005 Iraqi elections and aftermath See Also: Iraqi legislative election, January 2005 On , 2005 .February, March and April proved to be relatively peaceful months compared to the carnage of November and January, with insurgent attacks averaging 30 a day from the average 70. Hopes for a quick end to an insurgency and a withdrawal of U.S. troops were dashed at the advent of May, Iraq's bloodiest month since the invasion of U.S. forces in March and April 2003. Suicide bombers, believed to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and Saudis, tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia gatherings or civilian concentrations mainly of Shias. As a result, over 700 Iraqi civilians died in that month, as well as 79 U.S. soldiers. During early and mid-May, the U.S. also launched Operation Matador , an assault by around 1,000 Marines in the ungoverned region of western Iraq. Its goal was the closing of suspected insurgent supply routes of volunteers and material from Syria , and with the fight they received their assumption proved correct. Fighters armed with Flak Jacket s (unseen in the insurgency by this time) and sporting sophisticated tactics met the Marines, eventually inflicting 30 U.S. casualties by the operation's end, and suffering 125 casualties themselves. The Marines succeeded, recapturing the whole region and even fighting insurgents all the way to the Syrian border, where they were forced to stop (Syrian residents living near the border heard the American bombs very clearly during the operation). The vast majority of these armed and trained insurgents quickly dispersed before the U.S. could bring the full force of its firepower on them, as it did in Fallujah. Announcements and renewed fighting On , 2005 . Constitutional ratification and elections See Also: Iraqi constitution ratification vote, 2005 Iraqi legislative election, December 2005 The National Assembly elected in January had drafted a new constitution to be ratified in a national referendum on October 15 , 2005 . For ratification, the constitution required a majority of national vote, and could be blocked by a two thirds "no" vote in each of at least three of the 18 governates. In the actual vote, 79% of the voters voted in favor, and there was a two thirds "no" vote in only two governates, both predominantly Sunni. The new Constitution Of Iraq was ratified and took effect. Sunni turnout was substantially heavier than for the January elections, but insufficient to block ratification. Elections for a new Iraqi National Assembly were held under the new constitution on December 15 , 2005 . This election used a proportional system, with approximately 25% of the seats required to be filled by women. After the election, a coalition government was formed under the leadership of Prime Minister Nouri Al-Maliki , with Jalal Talibani as president. 2006 The beginning of that year was marked by government creation talks and continuous anti-coalition and attacks on mainly Shia civilians. Al-Askari shrine bombing and Sunni-Shia fighting :See '' Al Askari Mosque Bombing '' On during the morning. Explosions occurred at the mosque, effectively destroying its golden dome and severely damaging the mosque. Several men, one wearing a military uniform, had earlier entered the mosque, tied up the guards there and set explosives, resulting in the blast. Shiites across Iraq expressed their anger by destroying Sunni mosques and killing dozens. Religious leaders of both sides called for calm amid fears the situation could erupt into a long-awaited Sunni-Shia '' Civil War '' in Iraq. On March 2 the director of the Baghdad morgue fled Iraq explaining, "7,000 people have been killed by death squads in recent months."9 The Boston Globe reported that around eight times the number of Iraqis killed by terrorist bombings during March 2006 were killed by sectarian death squads during the same period. A total of 1,313 were killed by sectarian militias while 173 were killed by suicide bombings.10 The LA Times later reported that about 3,800 Iraqis were killed by sectarian violence in Baghdad alone during the first three months of 2006. During April 2006, morgue numbers show that 1,091 Baghdad residents were killed by sectarian executions.11 Insurgencies, frequent Terrorist Attacks and Sectarian Violence lead to harsh criticism of US Iraq policy and fears of a failing state and civil war. The concerns were expressed by several US Think Tanks 12131415 as well as the US ambassador to Iraq, Zalmay Khalilzad .16 In early 2006, a handful of high ranking retired generals begin to demand Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld's resignation due in part to the aforementioned chaos that resulted from his management of the war. British hand Muthanna province to Iraqis On July 12 , 2006 , Iraq took full control of the Muthanna Province , marking the first time since the Invasion that a province had been handed from foreign troops to the Iraqi government. In a joint statement, the U.S. ambassador Zalmay Khalilzad and the U.S. commander in Iraq, General George Casey, hailed it as a milestone in Iraq's capability to govern and protect itself as a "sovereign nation" and said handovers in other provinces will take place as conditions are achieved. "With this first transition of security responsibility, Muthanna demonstrates the progress Iraq is making toward self- governance", the statement said, adding that "Multi-National Forces will stand ready to provide assistance if needed." At the ceremony marking the event, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki stated, "It is a great national day that will be registered in the history of Iraq. This step forward will bring happiness to all Iraqis."1718 Forward Operating Base Courage handed over to Nineveh province government A former presidential compound of , 2006 . British troops leave Camp Abu Naji On August 24 , 2006 , Maj. Charlie Burbridge, a British military spokesman, said the last of 1,200 British troops left Camp Abu Naji , just outside Amarah in Iraq's southern Maysan Province . Burbridge told Reuters that British troops leaving the base were preparing to head deep into the marshlands along the Iranian border, stating "We are repositioning our forces to focus on border areas and deal with reports of smuggling of weapons and improvised explosive devices from across the border." The base had been a target for frequent mortar and rocket barrages since being set up in 2003, but Burbridge dismissed suggestions the British had been forced out of Amara while acknowledging the attacks had been one reason for the decision to withdraw, the second being that a static base did not fit with the new operation. "Abu Naji was a bulls-eye in the middle of a dartboard. The attacks were a nuisance and were a contributing factor in our planning", to quit the base, he said, adding "By no longer presenting a static target, we reduce the ability of the militias to strike us..We understand the militias in Maysan province are using this as an example that we have been pushed out of Abu Naji, but that is not true. It was very rare for us to take casualties." Burbridge stated that Iraqi security forces would now be responsible for day-to-day security in Maysan but stressed that the British had not yet handed over complete control to them. Muqtada Al-Sadr called the departure the first expulsion of U.S.-led coalition forces from an Iraqi urban center. A message from al-Sadr's office that played on car-mounted speakers throughout Amarah exclaimed "This is the first Iraqi city that has kicked out the occupier...We have to celebrate this occasion!" A crowd of as many as 5,000 people, including hundreds armed with AK-47 assault rifles, ransacked Camp Abu Naji immediately after the last British soldier had departed despite the presence of a 450-member Iraqi army brigade meant to guard the base. The looting, which lasted from about 10 a.m. to early evening, turned violent at about noon when individuals in the mob shot at the base. The Iraqi troops asked the province's governor for permission to return fire, a decision the British military highlighted as evidence of the security force's training. "It demonstrated that they understand the importance of civilian primacy, that the government -- and not the military -- is in charge", Burbridge said in a phone interview with the , 2006 . Situation in and around Baghdad A US general says on , 2006 . The , 2006 . Numerous car and roadside bombs rocked the capital November 9 , 2006 morning: In the Karrada district, a car bomb killed six and wounded 28 others. Another car bomb killed seven and wounded another 27 in the northern Qahira neighborhood. In South Baghdad, a mortar then a suicide car bomber killed seven and wounded 27 others near the Mishin bazaar. Near the college of Fine Arts in north-central Baghdad, a car bomb targeting an Iraqi patrol killed three and wounded six others. Two policemen were injured when they tried to dismantle a car bomb in the Zayouna district. A car bomb on Palestine Street in northeastern Baghdad meant for an Iraqi patrol killed one soldier but also wounded four civilians. Yet another car bomb in southern Baghdad wounded three people. And another car bomb near a passport services building in a northern neighborhood killed 2 people and wounded 7 others. A roadside bomb in central Baghdad killed two and wounded 26 others. A police patrol was blasted by a roadside bomb near a petrol station; four were killed in the explosion. Another four people were wounded in the New Baghdad neighborhood by yet another roadside bomb. A bomb hidden in a sack exploded in Tayern square killing three and wounding 19. Another bomb in the Doura neighborhood killed one and wounded three. Mortars fell in Kadmiyah killing one woman and injuring eight people, and in Bayaladat where four were wounded. Also in the capital, a group of laborers were kidnapped , 2006 . November 10 , 2006 , Iraqi police recovered 18 bullet-riddled bodies in various neighborhoods around the capital. Police were unable to identify the bodies. November 11 , 2006 , two bombs planted in an outdoor market in central Baghdad exploded around noon, killing six and wounded 32 people. A car bomb and a roadside bomb were detonated five minutes apart in the market, which is in an area close to Baghdad's main commercial center. The U.S. military said it has put up a $50,000 reward for anyone who helps find an American soldier kidnapped in Baghdad. The 42-year-old Army Reserve specialist, Ahmed K. Altaie, was abducted on October 23 when he left the Green Zone , the heavily fortified section where the United States maintains its headquarters, to visit his Iraqi wife and family. A suicide bomber killed 25 Iraqis and wounded 45 , November 12 , 2006 . Situation in other cities November 9 , 2006 .
, November 12 , 2006 .
Al-Qaeda Iraq says it has arrested the country's second most senior figure in , 2006 See Also: Al-Qaeda in Iraq Security handover to Iraq's army A Zogby poll in February 2006 determined that a majority of U.S. troops serving in Iraq think that the U.S. should exit the country within a year, i.e. before February 2007.19 The poll found:
Washington claims to be eager for Iraq's army to take over security and pave the way for a withdrawal of its 140,000 troops. But a handover ceremony on , 2006 Abu Ghraib On September 2 , 2006 , the Abu Ghraib Prison was formally handed over to Iraq's government. The formal transfer was conducted between Major General Jack Gardner, Commander of Task Force 134, and representatives of the Iraqi Ministry of Justice and the Iraqi army.20 Iraqi government takes control of the 8th Iraqi Army Division On September 7 , 2006 , Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki signed a document taking control of Iraq's small naval and air forces and the 8th Iraqi Army Division, based in the south. At a ceremony marking the occasion, Gen. George Casey, the top U.S. commander in Iraq stated "From today forward, the Iraqi military responsibilities will be increasingly conceived and led by Iraqis." Previously, the U.S.-led Multinational Forces in Iraq, commanded by Casey, gave orders to the Iraqi armed forces through a joint American-Iraqi headquarters and chain of command. Senior U.S. and coalition officers controlled army divisions but smaller units were commanded by Iraqi officers. After the handover, the chain of command flows directly from the prime minister in his role as Iraqi commander in chief, through his Defense Ministry to an Iraqi military headquarters. From there, the orders go to Iraqi units on the ground. The other nine Iraqi division remain under U.S. command, with authority gradually being transeferred. U.S. military officials said there was no specific timetable for the transition. U.S. military spokesman Maj. Gen. William Caldwell said it would be up to al-Maliki to decide "how rapidly he wants to move along with assuming control...They can move as rapidly thereafter as they want. I know, conceptually, they've talked about perhaps two divisions a month." The 8th Division's commander, Brig. Gen. Othman al-Farhoud, told The Associated Press his forces still needed support from the U.S.-led coalition for things such as medical assistance, storage facilities and air support, stating "In my opinion, it will take time Before His Division Was Completely Self-sufficient. "21 Anbar province reported as politically "lost" to U. S. and Iraqi government On September 11 , 2006 , it transpired that Colonel Peter Devlin, chief of intelligence for the Marine Corps in Iraq, had filed a secret report, described by those who have seen it as saying that the U.S. and the Iraqi government have been defeated politically in Anbar Province . According to ''The Washington Post,'' an unnamed Defense Department source described Devlin as saying "there are no functioning Iraqi government institutions in Anbar, leaving a vacuum that has been filled by the insurgent group al-Qaeda in Iraq, which has become the province's most significant political force." The Post said that Devlin is a very experienced intelligence officer whose report was being taken seriously.22 The next day, Major General Richard Zilmer, commander of the Marines in Iraq, stated: "We are winning this war... I have never heard any discussion about the war being lost before this weekend."23 Iraq takes over security responsibility in southern Dhi Qar province On September 21 , 2006 , Italian troops handed security control of the Dhi Qar province to Iraqi forces, making Dhi Qar the second of the country's 18 provinces to come under complete local control. At a ceremony in Nasiriyah marking the handover, Italian Defense Minister Arturo Parisi told Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri Al-Maliki "The Italian contingent is going back. The mission is accomplished - the security of the province is in your hands." Italy has about 1,600 troops in the country, mostly in Nasiriyah, and that force is expected to be withdrawn by year’s end. Dhi Qar is populated mainly by Shiite Muslims and has not experienced the Sectarian Violence that has plagued other provinces of Iraq.24 Iraq takes over security responsibilities in Najaf province On December 20 , 2006 , U.S. forces handed over control of the southern province of Najaf to Iraqi security forces. Najaf is the third Iraqi province to be turned over to Iraqi forces, but the first such handover by U.S. troops. U.S. forces will remain on standby in case the security situation deteriorates. "If we don't handle the responsibility, history will destroy us", Iraq's national security adviser, Mouwafak al-Rubaie, said at a ceremony in a stadium in Najaf city, the provincial capital. "Transferring responsibility is an indication of the increased capacity of the Iraqi police and the Iraqi army", Maj. Gen. Kurt Cichowski said at the ceremony.2526 PARTICIPATING NATIONS As of September, 2006, there were 21 countries with military forces stationed in Iraq. These were Albania, Armenia, Australia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, El Salvador, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, South Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, United Kingdom, and the United States. Fiji is also present but under the United Nations banner."'' Iraq Coalition Troops; Non-U.S. Forces in Iraq ''". Global Security, August 16 , 2005 . Well over 80% of the forces occupying Iraq are American. As of September 2006, there were an estimated 145,000 U.S. troops in Iraq."'' U.S. Forces Order of Battle ''". Global Security, , 2005 . There are also approximately 20,000 private security contractors of different nationalities under various employers. CASUALTIES See Also: Casualties of the conflict in Iraq since 2003 List of Coalition forces killed in Iraq in 2006 IRAQI COUNCILS AND AUTHORITIES On , 2002 . In the run-up to the invasion, the U.S. promised a speedy transition to a democratic government, as well as the creation of an Iraqi constitution, and the active role of Iraqis in the establishment of an interim authority and new government. U.S. officials continue to emphasize that the invasion was not about long-term occupation, but about liberation. In November 2003, Paul Bremer announced the plan to hand over limited sovereignty to the Iraqi governing council by June 30 , 2004 . A draft constitution was written and approved by the Iraqi Governing Council in March 2004. The United States has stated its plans to enter into what it calls a security agreement with the new Iraqi government and maintain military authority until a new Iraqi army is established. The Bush administration remained committed to this date despite the unstable security situation. The interim Iraqi government was named in May 2004, at which point the Iraqi Governing Council was dissolved, though there was heavy overlap between the two governing bodies. The U.S.-led - Kirkuk region, a Central zone in the Baghdad - Tikrit region, a Southern Central zone in the Karbala region and a South zone in the Basra region. The northern and central zones are garrisoned by U.S. troops, while the Southern Central zone is a garrisoned by a Multi-National Division under Polish command and the South zone is garrisoned by a Multi-National Division under British command. Map of Iraq and Caolition forces . BBC News (GIF format). In the early months of the occupation, looting and vandalism slowed the restoration of basic services such as water, electricity, and , 2005 . Allegations of Human Rights Violations By The Occupying Forces have been embarrassing to the Bush administration and the British government. Some of the allegations have been investigated. Several U.S. and British officers have been charged with the abuse of prisoners, and as of the beginning of February 2005, seven American soldiers have been convicted in connection with abuse at the Abu Ghraib Prison . Former , 2004 ; Page A01. Reconstruction See Also: Reconstruction of Iraq For the reconstruction, contracts were awarded to private companies. Initially companies from countries that had opposed the war were excluded from these contracts, but this decision was reversed due to protests."'' Canada barred from Iraq contracts ''". Associated Press, , 2003 . Some also argue that foreign contractors are doing work which could be done by unemployed Iraqis, which might be a factor fueling resentment of the occupation.Kelley, Matt, "'' Bid rigging, fraud and damage common in Iraq ''". Associated Press, , 2005 . On , 2005 ; A01. on the administration's effort to lower expectations, quoted Wayne White, former head of the State Department's Iraq intelligence team, as saying "The most thoroughly dashed expectation was the ability to build a robust self-sustaining economy. We're nowhere near that. State industries, electricity are all below what they were before we got there." A report of the United States Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction found widespread "fraud, incompetence and confusion" in the American occupation's handling of billions of dollars of Iraqi government money and American funds given for reconstruction (NY Times noted that only 49 of 136 planned water- and sanitation-related projects will be completed. In April 2007, the New York Times reported that U. S. federal oversight inspectors found that "in a sampling of eight projects that the United States had declared successes, seven were no longer operating as designed because of plumbing and electrical failures, lack of proper maintenance, apparent looting, and expensive equipment that lay idle. The United States has sometimes admitted ... that some of its reconstruction projects have been abandoned, delayed, or poorly constructed. But this is the first time inspectors have found that projects officially declared as successes—in some cases, as little as six months before the latest inspections—were no longer working properly."Glanz, James (2007), "Inspectors Find Rebuilt Projects Crumbing in Iraq; Quick Deterioration Seen; Iraqis Share the Blame at Sites Where the U. S. Declared Success." ''The New York Times,'' April 29, 2007, p. 1 CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT The establishment of a new civilian government of Iraq was complicated by religious and political divisions between the majority Shi'ite population and the formerly ruling Sunni Arabs. Moreover, many of the people in Saddam's ruling Ba'ath Party were perceived as tainted by the association by some parties. In northern Iraq, Kurd s had already had effectively autonomous rule for 12 years under the protection of the no-fly zone. On May 16 , 2003 , U.S. officials abandoned the plan to cede authority to a democratically chosen interim civilian Iraqi government (similar to what had happened in Afghanistan following the U.S. Invasion Of Afghanistan ) and presented a resolution to the UN to give the United States and the United Kingdom broad power and to lift economic sanctions on Iraq, allowing the occupying countries authority to use oil resources to pay for rebuilding the country. Passage of the resolution allowed them to appoint an interim government by themselves. On July 13 , 2003 , an Iraqi Governing Council was appointed by Coalition Provisional Authority Administrator L. Paul Bremer . United Nations resolutions On May 22 , 2003 , the UN Security Council voted 14–0 to give the United States and Britain the power to govern Iraq and use its oil resources to rebuild the country. Resolution 1483 removed nearly 13 years of economic sanctions originally imposed after Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait. The resolution allows UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to appoint a special representative to work with U.S. and British administrators on reconstruction, humanitarian aid, and the creation of a new government. The resolution also created the , 2004 . (Late Edition - Final , Section A , Page 8 , Column 1) On August 14 , 2003 , the Security Council voted 14–0 to "welcome" the creation of the Iraqi Governing Council. Resolution 1500 stopped short of formally recognizing the governing council as Iraq's legitimate governing body but called it an "important step" towards creating a sovereign government. Elections For several months the United States maintained that it intended to convene a constitutional convention, composed of influential Iraqis. However, European demands for an early election and Ayatollah Ali Al-Sistani's insistence eventually forced the United States to let the appointed Governing Council serve this function. In the early months of the occupation, new officials were appointed to several local and regional positions (e.g., mayors, governors, local councils). The officials were chosen from a select group of individuals (including ex-Ba'ath party officials) in an attempt to speed the return to normality and to avoid the election of people opposed to the American and British presence. Certain religious clerics and other officials were considered to be overly radical or dangerous. On occasion the appointed officials were found to behave less than admirably. On June 30 , 2003 , the appointed mayor of Najaf was arrested on charges of corruption. By February 2004, democratic elections, under the supervision of the CPA, had already been held at the municipal and city level in some of the southern and northern provinces.Shadid, Anthony, "'' In Iraqi Towns, Electoral Experiment Finds Some Success ''". Washington Post, February 16 , 2004 . On November 15 , the Iraqi Governing Council announced that a transitional government would take over in June from the U.S.-led powers, and that an elected government would follow by the end of 2005 once a constitution had been drafted and ratified. The transitional government would be selected in June 2004 by a transitional council formed in May 2004. The Governing Council revealed the timetable after the United States government, in reaction to terrorist and Militant activity against occupying troops and aid organisations, abandoned its earlier plan that a sovereign government would take charge only after creating a constitution and elections held. Jalal Talabani , who was chairman of the council, said the transition would involve "''the creation of a permanent constitution by an elected council, directly elected by the people, and also the election of a new government according to the articles of this new constitution before the end of 2005.''" In March 2004, an interim constitution was created, called the , 2005 . Though then-President Ghazi Al-Yaouar asked the United Nations to reconsider the electoral schedule several weeks before the election, the Legislative Election was held on time, creating the Iraqi National Assembly . The elected assembly drafted a new Constitution For Iraq , submitting it to the Iraqi people for review on August 28 . On October 15 , Iraqis Voted To Approve The New Constitution . On December 15 , the first Legislative Election under the new constitution was held. Sovereignty for Iraq , 2004 .]] In a , Security Council resolution 1546 was adopted unanimously, calling for "the end of the occupation and the assumption of full responsibility and authority by a fully sovereign and independent Interim Government of Iraq by June 30 , 2004 ." On June 28 , 2004 , the occupation was nominally ended by the CPA, which transferred limited power to a new Iraqi government led by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi. The Multinational Military Alliance continued to assist the Allawi government in governing the Iraqis. The purpose of the Occupation of Iraq was, according to U.S. President George W. Bush , purely to bring about a transition from post-war anarchy to full Iraqi sovereignty. A further milestone in sovereignty was achieved with the creation of a democratically-elected administration on April 6 , 2005 including Prime Minister Ibrahim Al-Jaafari and President Jalal Talabani following the Iraqi Elections of January 2005. IRAQI INSURGENCY Despite the defeat of the old Iraqi army, Irregular Forces , both Iraq i and external, have conducted attacks against the Coalition and, more recently, the new Iraqi government. In the early months following the "end of major combat operations", insurgents conducted sniper attacks, suicide bombings at road checkpoints, and ambushes, resulting in about 112 multinational force personnel deaths per month. Sometimes the attackers would say that they were motivated by revenge (e.g., an anti-coalition group claimed the four Iraqis that were allegedly shot at by British soldiers during a demonstration were unarmed and acting peacefully; six British soldiers were later killed by Iraqis). Several Iraqis, reportedly unarmed, were shot in anti-Alliance demonstrations, mostly in the nation's Sunni Arab areas. While Shi'a Muslim areas were mostly peaceful, Ayatollah Sayed Mohammed Baqir Al-Hakim , who returned to Iraq after decades in exile shortly after the occupation began, said: "We are not afraid of the British or American troops. This country wants to keep its sovereignty and the forces of the coalition must leave it." Coalition forces denied the accusations of targeting unarmed civilians. They said they were fired upon and were returning fire. The violent insurgency began shortly after the 2003 Invasion Of Iraq and increased during the Occupation . Originally, the insurgents targeted the coalition force (a majority of whom are from the United States and the United Kingdom ) and the interim government (eg., the Coalition Provisional Authority ) formed under the occupation. The insurgency grew during the period between the invasion of Iraq and the establishment of a new Iraqi government. Guerrilla war In late June, 2003 there was some public debate in the U.S. as to whether the insurgency could be characterized as a Guerrilla War . On June 17 , Army Gen. John P. Abizaid said that forces in Iraq were "conducting what I would describe as a classical guerrilla-type campaign against us. It's low-intensity conflict in our doctrinal terms, but it's war however you describe it." In a statement to Congress on June 18 , Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz said "There's a guerrilla war there but we can win it." Sabotage For more details on this topic, see Iraqi Insurgency's Sabotage . Sabotage of Oil Pipelines and refineries have been a key tactic of the Iraqi Insurgency . The United States had intended to quickly rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for production back to pre-war levels, but widespread sabotage slowed down the pace of reconstruction. The administration has set an oil-production goal of 5 million barrels per day, but the president's numbers show that production decreased slightly in 2005 over 2004 from 2.2 million gallons per day to 2.1 million gallons per day. The administration claims that oil production, however, is up from 2003, when oil was produced at 1.58 million barrels per day. Iraqi analysts have argued that the administration's measures are misleading because the war began in 2003, which pushed production numbers lower than they normally would have been. "They are way off of their original projections" for where oil production would be now, said Rick Barton, an expert on Iraqi reconstruction at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington. "It's basically gone nowhere in the entire time we've been there. Of course, they haven't been able to protect the pipelines. You just can't be rebuilding a country during an active war."Simmons, Greg, "'' Dems Doubt Iraq Progress ''". Fox News, December 7 , 2005 . Fallujah The Fallujah offensive Operation Vigilant Resolve was launched on April 5 in response to the March 31 murder and mutilation of four of Blackwater's employees. Roads leading into and out of the city were closed. When the U.S. Marines tried to enter, fierce fighting erupted. Members of the Iraqi insurgency opened fire with heavy machine guns, rockets, and rocket-propelled grenades. The Marines answered by bringing in tanks and helicopters. The ensuing firefight resulted in a large number of casualties. Dozens of Marines were killed and injured. Two hundred and seventy-one members of the non-coalition forces were killed and 793 injured, according to official counts for the period of , 2004 . There were also reports of ambulances and aid convoys being used by the insurgents to smuggle weapons and fighters into the city.Navarro, Lourdes, "'' Rebels smuggle supplies into Iraqi city ''". Associated Press, April 12 , 2004 . Coalition officials said that the insurgents used mosques and schools as command posts and weapon-storage facilities. A suicide-bomb-vest factory was discovered by Marines."'' Marines, insurgents wage furious battle for Fallujah ''". CNN. After several failed attempts at ceasefires, the U.S. backed out of the city. A Marine commander stated "We don't want to turn Fallouja into Dresden ". The U.S. handed authority of the city over to a former Iraqi general who had served under Saddam Hussein, and whose fighters the U.S. acknowledges may include former members of insurgency. Afterwards, the city was referred to as "free rebel town"; banners in the city streets proclaimed victory over the United States, and some of its mosques praised the Iraqi insurgency. The general, , 2004 ; Page A01. U.S. Marines encircled Fallujah with an earth wall, trying to control access to the city, allowing only women and children to leave the city. On , 2004 . Allawi condemned the rebellion and called upon the city to surrender Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi , the leader of the Tawhid-e-Jihad group who is alleged to be hiding in Fallujah, or face aerial bombing by the United States. Muqtada al-Sadr On April 4 , 2004 , coalition forces closed Shiite cleric Muqtada Al-Sadr 's newspaper Al-Hawza , claiming that it contained incitements to violence. One example provided was that on February 26 , an article claimed that a suicide bombing in Iskandariya that killed 53 people was a rocket fired by the Americans, and not a car bomb. In response, al-Sadr launched a day of protests. During these protests, members of the Iraqi insurgency (who may or may not have been tied to al-Sadr) ambushed a Coalition patrol guarding a trash collecting unit in Sadr-City resulting in the deaths of 8 soldiers. Several dozen of al-Sadr's followers were killed during these protests. The coalition responded by arresting one of al-Sadr's closest aides, leading to al-Sadr calling on his followers to rise up. The next days fighting erupted in many cities in southern Iraq, including Karbala , Kut , Nassiriya and Basra . The CPA announced the existence of a three-month-old arrest warrant, issued by an Iraqi judge, on al-Sadr, claiming that he was responsible for the killing of Coalition-aligned cleric Abdul Majid Al-Khoei . The warrant itself inspired further opposition, as Khoei's own followers blamed Baathists for the murder, the Coalition-appointed Iraqi Minister of Justice stated that he had no knowledge of the warrant, and the Iraqi Jurists Association declared the warrant "illegal". Al-Sadr, who had previously created his own parallel government and a militia called the al-Mahdi Army, instructed his followers to no longer follow along with the occupation, and suggested that they attack Coalition soldiers, and his followers took control of several southern cities, often with the support of local authorities and police. During the first few days of the uprising al-Sadr stayed in Kufa , where he traditionally had a large following. On April 7 he moved to Najaf, into a building close to the shrine of the Imam Ali , the holiest shrine in the Shia faith. After fierce fighting during the first days of the uprising, his followers took control over many cities in southern Iraq. In Kut the Ukrainian occupational contingent was forced out of the city by a rain of mortar fiire. The Italians were contained inside their base in Nassiriya, and in Basra the governor's palace was occupied. In Karbala , Polish and Bulgarian forces were able to hold their own after a battle lasting the whole night. The Alliance reacted by dispensing a reactionary force on April 8 to Kut, forcing al-Sadr followers to melt away into the city's population. The same happened in most of the other cities and control was nominally ceded. Only Najaf and Kufa, which the Americans did not enter, remained effectively under the control of al-Sadr followers. The Coalition sent 2,500 U.S. Marines to Najaf to try to 'arrest or kill' al-Sadr. Initially hopeful that al-Sistani would force al-Sadr to capitulate, the coalition was disappointed when, while he called for all sides to show restraint, he focused instead on condemning coalition activities in Fallujah. In mid-May 2004, a U.S. lead force began pushing into Najaf. In the process, they invaded several mosques to seize weaponry, and there were reports of damage to some of Shia Islam's holiest shrines. U.S. forces, using their superior fire power and air support, inflicted a steady stream of al-Mahdi army casualties; al-Sadr and hospital officials disputed the numbers, and both claimed that many of them were civilians. The al-Mahdi were only able to inflict few American casualties, but on services) about the incident over the actions of the insurgents driving the Italian troops from their base in Nasiriyah called "Libeccio" ("southwest wind"). Ten Italians were wounded, along with 20 al-Mahdi army fighters wounded and two killed, in the assault. The base was peacefully retaken the next day in a negotiated settlement with local clan leaders. While the Alliance continually insisted that he had little support, and there were limited clashes with the smaller SCIRI, he was seldom condemned by his more senior clerics. Islamic courts expanded their influence in areas he controlled. The , 2004 . In Augsust 2004, al-Sadr attempted a second rebellion, and his al-Mahdi army again incited violence, especially in the Sadr City slum area of Baghdad, and in Najaf. U.S. forces responsded by pushing into the areas of Najaf controlled by al-Mahdi, sending the milita reeling. Supported by Helicopter Gunships , the U.S. military managed to kill several hundred al-Mahdi fighters, and further close in on the Iman Ali mosque, where al-Sadr had made his base. Brutal fighting raged between U.S. troops and al-Madhi militiamen in a cemetery outside the mosque. To avoid damaging the sacred mosque in a direct raid, a political solution was sought, and a deal was struck between al-Sistani and al-Sadr ended his rebellion. In September 2004, a program encouraged al-Madhi members in Sadr city to exchange their guns into authorities for a financial compensation, and the slum was almost fully pacified. By August 2005, al-Sadr had adopted a more conciliatory tone, along with a much lower profile, saying "I call upon all the believers to save the blood of the Muslims and to return to their homes" after an outbreak of violence between some of his followers and those of , 2005 . Hostages In response to the occupation, militants have taken foreign and Iraqi hostages, including citizens of both countries that supported and opposed the invasion. This includes citizens of Australia , Brazil , Bulgaria , Canada , China , Czech Republic , France , India , Ireland , Israel , Italy , Germany , Japan , Jordan , Nepal , Pakistan , Poland , Romania , Russia , South Korea , Thailand , Turkey , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and the United States Of America . The hostage-taking appears to be uncoordinated, with different groups making various demands. Some hostages are released whilst others are killed, often by beheading. Several kidnappings have been claimed by the Tawhid And Jihad (The Unity of God and Holy War) Islamist group, which changed its name to "Al-Qaeda in Iraq" in October 2004. The group was ran by the Jordanian-born Palestinian Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi . The hostages who have been beheaded by Zarqawi's group, and possibly by Zarqawi himself, include Americans Nick Berg , Eugene Armstrong and Jack Hensley , South Korean Kim Sun-il , Shosei Koda from Japan, and Kenneth Bigley from the UK. Italian Fabrizio Quattrocchi was shot in the head, possibly by another group, as was British aid worker Margaret Hassan . According to the Committee To Protect Journalists , at least 25 Journalists have been kidnapped by armed groups in Iraq since April 2004, when insurgents began targeting foreigners for abduction. On the evening of March 4 , 2005 , the car leading Giuliana Sgrena , freshly liberated, along with two agents of the Sismi , the Italian Military Intelligence service, was fired upon by U.S. troops. Nicola Calipari , who had negotiated the liberation of the other eight Italian hostages, was killed, while Sgrena and the other agent were wounded; see Rescue Of Giuliana Sgrena . Fall-out As a result of the uprisings U.S. General , 2004 , U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld announced that he had approved General Abizaid's request and had extended the tour of roughly 20,000 soldiers, who were scheduled to be rotated out of Iraq, by three months. A fresh mass grave was found near Ramadi, containing the bodies of over 350 Iraqis."'' Mass Grave of Dead Iraqi Insurgents and Civilians found ''". Real Cities. (ed., Originally from Knight Ridder News Coverage of Washington and the World). It is unclear whether this mass grave contained dead civilians and/or militants. Iraq Study Group Report At a news conference with the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in Washington on 6 December 2006 , President George W. Bush commented the Iraq Study Group 's bipartisan report assessing the current situation of the US-led Iraq War and making policy recommendations. President Bush admitted for the first time that a ''"new approach"'' is needed in Iraq, that the situation in Iraq is ''"bad there"'' and that the task ahead was ''"daunting"''.27 Mr Bush said he would not accept every recommendation by the ISG panel but promised that he would take the report seriously. Mr Bush is expected to wait for three other studies from The Pentagon , the US State Department and the National Security Council before charting the new course on Iraq.28 IRAQ COALITION MEMBERS DEPARTURES The following countries were members of the " Coalition Of The Willing " and withdrew their troops subsequently:
U.S. MILITARY PATROLLING During the "post-war" Iraq occupation, occupying forces have turned their attention to enforcing order through Patrolling . These patrols faced Insurgent s who conduct ambushes using assault rifles, rocket propelled grenades, and carefully placed and timed explosives. The patrols require armored vehicles capable of stopping at least small arms fire of 7.62 mm Machine Gun rounds along with mandatory external weapons platforms and tracking equipment. Experience is also key in detecting any potentially threatening, out of place car, box or person while following the Rules Of Engagement that dictate a passive-but-ready posture. Patrolling soldiers spend nearly eight hours a day in sector and accrue nearly 30 patrols per month. U.S. PERMANENT FACILITIES In October 2004, Iraq's interim government transferred to U.S. ownership 104 acres of land beside the Tigris River in Baghdad for construction of a New U.S. Embassy . The new facility will be the largest of its kind in the world, the size of Vatican City , with the population of a small town, its own defense force, self-contained power and water. A few details of the embassy complex are available from a U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee report, though many of the details remain secret. Its construction is budgeted at $592 million.29 Besides the embassy complex, four “super bases” are being built for permanent deployment. One would be adjacent to Baghdad, two would be close to the southern and northern oil fields and the fourth would be in the west towards Syria. The U.S. is in the process of building 14 bases known as enduring bases. Four are unknown as to name and location. The other ten are: Green Zone in Baghdad, Camp Anaconda at Balad Airbase, Camp Taji in Taji, Camp Falcon-Al-Sarq in Baghdad, Post Freedom in Mosul, Camp Victory-Al Nasr at Baghdad Airfield, Camp Marez at Mosul Airfield, Camp Renegade in Kirkuk, Camp Speicher in Tikrit and Camp Fallujuh.30 SEE ALSO
REFERENCES ;Military occupation ;Legal status 2004.
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