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Windows 2000 succeeded Windows NT 40
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Windows 2000
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(also referred to as '''Win2K''' or '''W2K''') is a
Microprocessor s. Windows 2000 is classified as a hybrid-kernel operating system, and its architecture is divided into two modes: user mode and kernel mode. The kernel mode provides unrestricted access to system resources and facilitates the user mode, which is heavily restricted and designed for most applications.
All versions of Windows 2000 have common functionality, including many system utilities such as the
Microsoft Management Console (MMC) and standard system management applications such as a disk defragmentation utility. Support for people with disabilities has also been improved by Microsoft across their Windows 2000 line, and they have included increased support for different languages and locale information. All versions of the operating system support the Windows NT filesystem,
NTFS 5, the Encrypted File System (EFS), as well as basic and dynamic disk storage. Dynamic disk storage allows different types of volumes to be used. The Windows 2000 Server family has enhanced functionality, including the ability to provide
Active Directory services (a hierarchical framework of resources),
Distributed File System (a file system that supports sharing of files) and fault-redundant storage volumes.
Windows 2000 can be installed and deployed to an enterprise through either an attended or unattended installation. Unattended installations rely on the use of answer files to fill in installation information, and can be performed through a bootable CD using Microsoft
Systems Management Server (SMS), by the
System Preparation Tool (Sysprep).
See Also: History of Microsoft Windows
Windows 2000 originally descended from the Microsoft
Windows NT operating system product line. Originally called Windows NT 5, Microsoft changed the name to Windows 2000 on
October 27 1998
On
September 29 2000 , Microsoft released Windows 2000 Datacenter. Microsoft released
Service Pack 1 (SP1) on
August 15 2000 , Service Pack 2 (SP2) on
May 16 2001 , Service Pack 3 (SP3) on
August 29 2002 and its last Service Pack (SP4) on
June 26 2003 . Microsoft has stated that they will not release a Service Pack 5, but instead, have offered an "Update Rollup" for Service Pack 4. Microsoft phased out all development of their
Java Virtual Machine (JVM) from Windows 2000 in Service Pack 3.
Windows 2000 has since been superseded by newer Microsoft operating systems. Microsoft has replaced Windows 2000 Server products with
Windows Server 2003 , and Windows 2000 Professional with
Windows XP Professional .
Windows Neptune started development in 1999, and was supposed to be the home-user edition of Windows 2000. However, the project lagged in production time – and only one alpha release was built.
Windows Me was released as a substitute, and the Neptune project was forwarded to the production of Whistler (Windows XP). The only elements of the Windows project which were included in Windows 2000 were the ability to upgrade from Windows 95 or Windows 98, and support for the
FAT32 File System .
Several notable security flaws have been found in Windows 2000.
Code Red and
Code Red II were famous (and highly visible to the worldwide
Press )
Computer Worms that exploited vulnerabilities of the indexing service of Windows 2000's
Internet Information Services (IIS). In August 2003, two major worms named the
Sobig Worm and the
Blaster Worm began to attack millions of Microsoft Windows computers, resulting in the largest down-time and clean-up cost ever. The worms have also had political consequences as many companies in several countries started to call for government action to prevent further damage from Windows worms.
See Also: Architecture of Windows 2000
Windows 2000 is a highly modular system that consists of two main layers: a
User Mode and a
Kernel Mode . The user mode refers to the mode in which user programs are run. Such programs are limited in terms of what system resources they have access to, while the kernel mode has unrestricted access to the system memory and external devices. All user mode applications access system resources through the executive which runs in kernel mode.
User mode in Windows 2000 is made of subsystems capable of passing
I/O requests to the appropriate kernel mode drivers by using the I/O manager. Two subsystems make up the user mode layer of Windows 2000: the environment subsystem and the integral subsystem.
The environment subsystem was designed to run applications written for many different types of operating systems. These applications, however, run at a lower priority than kernel mode processes. There are three main environment subsystems:
#
Win32 subsystem runs 32-bit Windows applications and also supports
Virtual DOS Machine s (VDMs), which allows
MS-DOS and
16-bit Windows 3.x (
Win16 ) applications to run on Windows.
#
OS/2 environment subsystem supports 16-bit character-based OS/2 applications and emulates OS/2 1.3 and 1.x, but not 2.x or later OS/2 applications.
#
POSIX environment subsystem supports applications that are strictly written to either the POSIX.1 standard or the related
ISO /
IEC standards.
The integral subsystem looks after operating system specific functions on behalf of the environment subsystem. It consists of a ''security subsystem'' (grants/denies access and handles logons), ''workstation service'' (helps the computer gain network access) and a
''server service'' (lets the computer provide network services).
Kernel Mode in Windows 2000 has full access to the hardware and system resources of the computer. The kernel mode stops user mode services and applications from accessing critical areas of the operating system that they should not have access to.
. This is a screenshot from ''SysInternal's''
WinObj ]]
The executive interfaces with all the user mode subsystems. It deals with I/O, object management, security and process management. It contains various components, including:
- : a special executive subsystem that all other executive subsystems must pass through to gain access to Windows 2000 resources. This essentially is a resource management infrastructure service that allows Windows 2000 to be an Object Oriented operating system.
- allows devices to communicate with user-mode subsystems by translating user-mode read and write commands and passing them to Device Driver s.
- the primary authority for enforcing the security rules of the security integral subsystem. ''Microsoft''. " Active Directory Data Storage ".
- short for Interprocess Communication Manager, manages the communication between clients (the environment subsystem) and servers (components of the executive).
- manages Virtual Memory , allowing Windows 2000 to use the Hard Disk as a Primary Storage device (although strictly speaking it is Secondary Storage ).
- handles Process and Thread creation and termination
- handles Plug And Play and supports device detection and installation at boot time.
- the power manager coordinates power events and generates power IRPs.
- The display system is handled by a device driver contained in ''Win32k.sys''. The component of this driver is responsible for drawing windows and menus while the '''GDI''' ( Graphical Device Interface ) component is responsible for tasks such as drawing Lines and Curve s, rendering Font s and handling Palette s.
The Windows 2000
Hardware Abstraction Layer , or HAL, is a layer between the physical hardware of the computer and the rest of the operating system. It was designed to hide differences in hardware and therefore provide a consistent platform to run applications on. The HAL includes hardware specific code that controls I/O interfaces,
Interrupt Controller s and multiple processors.
The microkernel sits between the HAL and the executive and provides multiprocessor synchronization, thread and interrupt scheduling and dispatching, trap handling and exception dispatching. The microkernel often interfaces with the process manager.
''Inside Microsoft Windows 2000'' (Third Edition). ''Microsoft Press''.
The microkernel is also responsible for initialising device drivers at bootup that are necessary to get the operating system up and running.
Certain features are common across all versions of Windows 2000 (both Professional and the Server versions), among them being NTFS 5, the
Microsoft Management Console (MMC), the
Encrypting File System (EFS), dynamic and basic disk storage, usability enhancements and multi-language and locale support. Windows 2000 also has several standard system utilities included as standard. As well as these features, Microsoft introduced a new feature to protect critical system files, called Windows File Protection (WFP). This prevents programs (with the exception of Microsoft's update programs) from replacing critical Windows system files and thus making the system inoperable.
Microsoft KB article 222193: Description of the Windows File Protection Feature
Microsoft recognised that the infamous
Blue Screen Of Death (or stop error) could cause serious problems for servers that needed to be constantly running and so provided a system setting that would allow the server to automatically reboot when a stop error occurred. Users have the option of dumping the first 64
KB of memory to disk (the smallest amount of memory that is useful for
Debugging purposes, also known as a minidump), a dump of only the kernel's memory or a dump of the entire contents of memory to disk, as well as write that this event happened to the Windows 2000 event log. In order to improve performance on computers running Windows 2000 as a server operating system, Microsoft gave administrators the choice of optimising the operating system for background services or for applications.
.]]
See Also: NTFS
Microsoft released the third version of the
NT File System (NTFS) — also known as version 5.0 — in Windows 2000; this introduced
Quota s, file-system-level
Encryption (called EFS), sparse files and reparse points. Sparse files allow for the efficient storage of data sets that are very large yet contain many areas that only have
Zero es. Reparse points allow the object manager to reset a file namespace lookup and let file system drivers implement changed functionality in a transparent manner. Reparse points are used to implement Volume Mount Points, Directory Junctions, Hierarchical Storage Management, Native Structured Storage and Single Instance Storage. Volume mount points and directory junctions allow for a file to be transparently referred from one file or directory location to another.
See Also: Encrypting File System
The Encrypting File System (EFS) introduced strong
Encryption into the Windows file world. It allowed any folder or drive on an NTFS volume to be encrypted transparently to the end user. EFS works in conjunction with the EFS service, Microsoft's
CryptoAPI and the EFS File System Run-Time Library (FSRTL). As of
February 2004 , its encryption has not been compromised.
EFS works by encrypting a file with a bulk
Symmetric Key (also known as the File Encryption Key, or FEK), which is used because it takes a relatively smaller amount of time to encrypt and decrypt large amounts of data than if an
Asymmetric Key cipher is used. The symmetric key that is used to encrypt the file is then encrypted with a
Public Key that is associated with the user who encrypted the file, and this encrypted data is stored in the header of the encrypted file. To decrypt the file, the file system uses the private key of the user to decrypt the symmetric key that is stored in the file header. It then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the file. Because this is done at the file system level, it is transparent to the user.
"
Encrypting File System ". ''Microsoft''.
Also, in case of a user losing access to their key, support for recovery agents that can decrypt files has been built in to the EFS system.
See Also: Logical Disk Manager
Windows 2000 introduced the
Logical Disk Manager for dynamic storage. All versions of Windows 2000 support three types of dynamic disk volumes (along with basic storage): ''simple volumes'', ''spanned volumes'' and ''striped volumes'':
- this is a volume with disk space from one disk.
- multiple disks spanning up to 32 disks. If one disk fails, all data in the volume is lost.
- also known as RAID-0 , a striped volume stores all its data across several disks in ''stripes''. This allows better performance because disk read and writes are balanced across multiple disks.
Windows 2000 also added support for
ISCSI protocol.
Microsoft made an effort to increase the usability of Windows 2000 for people with visual and auditory impairments and other
Disabilities . They included several utilities designed to make the system more
Accessible :
- These are a group of Keyboard related support for people with typing issues, and include:
- --- Windows is told to disregard keystrokes that are not held down for a certain time period
- --- multiple keystrokes to one key to be ignored within a certain timeframe
- --- allows users to slow down the rate at which keys are repeated via the keyboard's keyrepeat feature
- when turned on, Windows will play a sound when either the CAPS LOCK, NUM LOCK or SCROLL LOCK keys are pressed
- allows the cursor to be moved around the screen via the numeric keypad instead of the mouse
- assists those who are not familiar with a given keyboard by allowing them to use a mouse to enter characters to the screen
- gives Windows 2000 the ability to support speech augmentation devices
- makes modifier keys (ALT, CTRL and SHIFT) become "sticky" — in other words a user can press the modifier key, release that key and then press the combination key. Normally the modifier key must remain pressed down to activate the sequence.
- assists users with visual impairments by magnifying the part of the screen they place their mouse over.
- Microsoft Narrator assists users with visual impairments with system messages, as when these appear the narrator will read this out via the sound system
- to assist users with visual impairments
- designed to help users with auditory impairments, Windows 2000 will show a visual effect when a sound is played through the sound system
Windows 2000 has support for many languages other than
English . It supports
Arabic ,
Armenian ,
Baltic ,
Central European ,
Cyrillic ,
Georgian ,
Greek ,
Hebrew ,
Indic ,
Japanese ,
Korean ,
Simplified Chinese ,
Thai ,
Traditional Chinese ,
Turkic ,
Vietnamese and
Western European languages.
Microsoft Support KB 292264: List of Languages Supported in Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 .
It also has support for many different
Locale s, a list of which can be found on
Microsoft's website .
Windows 2000 introduced the Microsoft Management Console (MMC), which is used to create, save, and open administrative tools. Each of the tools is called a ''console'', and most consoles allow an administrator to administer other Windows 2000 computers from one centralised computer. Each console can contain one or many specific administrative tools, called ''snap-ins''. Snap-ins can be either standalone (performs one function), or extensions (adds functionality to an existing snap-in). In order to provide the ability to control what snap-ins can be seen in a console, the MMC allows consoles to be created in author mode or created in user mode. Author mode allows snap-ins to be added, new windows to be created, all portions of the console tree can be displayed and for consoles to be saved. User mode allows consoles to be distributed with restrictions applied. User mode consoles can have full access granted user so they can make whatever changes they desire, can have limited access so that users cannot add to the console but they can view multiple windows in a console, or they can have limited access so that users cannot add to the console and also cannot view multiple windows in a console.
''Microsoft Press'' (2000). ''MCSE 70-210, Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional'', pages 58-63.
The main tools that come with Windows 2000 can be found in the Computer Management console (found in Administrative Tools in the Control Panel). This contains the event viewer — a means of seeing events and the Windows equivalent of a
Log File , a system information viewer, the ability to view open shared folders and shared folder sessions, a device manager and a tool to view all the local users and groups on the Windows 2000 computer. It also contains a disk management snap-in, which contains a disk defragmenter as well as other disk management utilities. Lastly, it also contains a services viewer, which allows users to view all installed services and to stop and start them on demand, as well as configure what those services should do when the computer starts.
Windows 2000 comes bundled with two utilities to edit the
Windows Registry . One acts like the Windows 9x REGEDIT.EXE program and the other could edit registry permissions in the same manner that Windows NT's REGEDT32.EXE program could. REGEDIT.EXE has a left-side tree view that begins at "My Computer" and lists all loaded hives. REGEDT32.EXE has a left-side tree view, but each hive has its own window, so the tree displays only keys. REGEDIT.EXE represents the three components of a value (its name, type, and data) as separate columns of a table. REGEDT32.EXE represents them as a list of strings. REGEDIT.EXE was written for the Win32
API and supports right-clicking of entries in a tree view to adjust properties and other settings. REGEDT32.EXE was also written for the Win32 API and requires all actions to be performed from the top menu bar. Because REGEDIT.EXE was directly ported from
Windows 98 , it does not support permission editing (permissions do not exist in Windows 9x). Therefore, the only way to access the full functionality of an NT registry was with REGEDT32.EXE, which uses the older
Multiple Document Interface (MDI), which newer versions of regedit do not use.
Windows XP was the first system to integrate these two programs into one, adopting the REGEDIT.EXE behavior with the additional NT functionality.
The System File Checker (SFC) also comes bundled with Windows 2000. It is a
Command Line utility that scans system files and verifies whether they were signed by Microsoft and works in conjunction with the Windows File Protection mechanism. It can also repopulate and repair all the files in the Dllcache folder.
Microsoft KB article 222471: Description of the Windows 2000 System File Checker (Sfc.exe)
The Recovery Console is an application that is run from outside the installed copy of Windows and that enables a user to perform maintenance tasks that cannot be run from inside of the installed copy, or cannot be feasibly run from another computer or copy of Windows 2000. It is usually used, however, to recover the system from errors causing booting to fail, which would render other tools useless.
It presents itself as a simple
Command Line interface. The commands are limited to ones for checking and repairing the hard drive(s), repairing boot information (including
NTLDR ), replacing corrupted system files with fresh copies from the CD, or enabling/disabling services and drivers for the next boot.
The console can be accessed in one of two ways:
# Starting from the Windows 2000 CD, and choosing to enter the Recovery Console instead of continuing with setup, or
# Installing the Recovery Console via Winnt32.exe, with the /cmdcons switch. However, the console can then only be used if the system boots to the point where NTLDR can start it.
The Windows 2000 server family consists of Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server.
All editions of Windows 2000 Server have the following services and functionality built-in:
- Routing and Remote Access Service (RRAS) support, facilitating dial-up and VPN connections, support for RADIUS authentication, network connection sharing, Network Address Translation , unicast and multicast routing
- DNS server, including support for Dynamic DNS . Active Directory relies heavily on DNS.
- Microsoft Connection Manager Administration Kit and Connection Point Services
- Support for Distributed File System s (DFS))
- Heirachical Storage Management support, a service that runs in conjunction with NTFS that automatically transfers files that are not used for some period of time to less expensive storage media
- Fault tolerant volumes, namely it supports Mirrored and RAID-5
- Group Policy (part of Active Directory)
- ''IntelliMirror'', a collection of technologies for fine-grained management of Windows 2000 Professional desktops (roaming profiles, software installation, settings management).
- Kerberos authentication
- Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) support
- Terminal Services and support for the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
- Internet Information Server (IIS) 5
See Also: Distributed File System (Microsoft)
The Distributed File System, or DFS, allows
Shares in multiple different locations to be logically grouped under one folder, or ''DFS root''. When users try to access a share that exists off the DFS root, the user is really looking at a ''DFS link'' and the DFS server transparently redirects them to the correct file server and share. A DFS root can only exist on a Windows 2000 version that is part of the server family, and only one DFS root can exist on that server.
There can be two ways of implementing DFS on Windows 2000: through standalone DFS, or through domain-based DFS. Standalone DFS allows for only DFS roots that exist on the local computer, and thus does not use Active Directory. Domain-based DFS roots exist within Active Directory and can have their information distributed to other domain controllers within the domain — this provides fault tolerance to DFS. DFS roots that exist on a domain must be hosted on a domain controller or on a domain member server. The file and root information is replicated via the Microsoft File Replication Service (FRS).
Microsoft KB article 812487: Overview of DFS in Windows 2000
See Also: Active Directory
Active Directory allows administrators to assign enterprise wide policies, deploy programs to many computers, and apply critical updates to an entire organization, and is one of the main reasons why many corporations have moved to Windows 2000. Active Directory stores information about its users and can act in a similar manner to a phone book. This allows all of the information and computer settings about an organization to be stored in a central, organized database. Active Directory Networks can vary from a small installation with a few hundred objects, to a large installation with millions of objects. Active Directory can organise groups of resources into a single ''domain'' and can link domains into a contiguous
Domain Name space together to form ''trees''. Groups of trees that do not exist within the same namespace can be linked together to form ''forests''.
Active Directory can only be installed on a Windows 2000 Server, Advanced Server or Datacenter Server computer, and cannot be installed on a Windows 2000 Professional computer. It requires that a DNS service that supports
SRV Resource Record s be installed, or that an existing DNS infrastructure be upgraded to support this functionality. It also requires that one or more domain controllers exist to hold the Active Directory database and provide Active Directory
Directory Services .
Along with support for simple, spanned and striped volumes, the server family of Windows 2000 also supports fault tolerant volume types. The types supported are ''mirrored volumes'' and ''RAID-5 volumes'':
- the volume contains several disks, and when data is written to one it is mirrored to the other disks. This means that if one disk fails, the data can be totally recovered from the other disk. Mirrored volumes are also known as RAID-1 .
- a RAID-5 volume consists of multiple disks, and it uses Block -level striping with Parity data distributed across all member disks. Should a disk fail in the array, the parity blocks from the surviving disks are combined mathematically with the data blocks from the surviving disks to reconstruct the data on the failed drive "on-the-fly" (this works with various levels of success).
Microsoft released various versions of Windows 2000 to cater to different markets and business needs. It released Windows 2000 Professional, Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server:
- was designed as the desktop operating system for businesses and power users. It is the basic unit of Windows 2000, and the most common. It offers greater security and stability than many of the previous Windows desktop operating systems. It supports up to two Processor s, and can address up to 4 GB s of RAM .
- products share the same User Interface with Windows 2000 Professional, but contain additional components for running infrastructure and application software. A significant component of the server products is Active Directory , which is an enterprise-wide directory service based on LDAP . Additionally, Microsoft integrated Kerberos network authentication, replacing the often-criticised NTLM authentication system used in previous versions. This also provided a purely transitive-trust relationship between Windows 2000 Domains in a ''forest'' (a collection of one or more Windows 2000 domains that share a common schema, configuration, and global catalogue, being linked with two-way transitive trusts). Furthermore, Windows 2000 introduced a DNS server which allows dynamic registration of IP addresses.
- is a variant of Windows 2000 Server operating system designed for medium-to-large businesses. It offers version of Windows 2000 Advanced Server was made available via the OEM Channel. It also supports failover and load balancing.
- is a variant of the Windows 2000 Server that is designed for large businesses that move large quantities of confidential or sensitive data frequently via a central Server . As with Advanced Server, it supports clustering, failover and load balancing. Its system requirements are normal, but are compatible with vast amounts of power:
- ---A Pentium -class CPU at 400 MHz or higher - up to 32 are supported in one machine
- ---256 MB of RAM - up to 64 GB is supported in one machine
- ---Approximately 1 GB of available disk space
Windows 2000 can be deployed to a site via various methods. It can be installed onto servers via traditional media (such as via CD) or via distribution folders that reside on a shared folder. Installations can be attended or unattended. An attended installation requires the manual intervention of an operator to choose options when installing the operating system. Unattended installations are scripted via an answer file, or predefined script in the form of an
INI File that has all the options filled in already. The Winnt.exe or Winnt32.exe program then uses that answer file to automate the installation. Unattended installations can be performed via a bootable CD, using Microsoft
Systems Management Server (SMS), via the System Preparation Tool (Sysprep), via running the Winnt32.exe program using the /syspart switch or via running the Remote Installation Service (RIS).
The Syspart method is started on a standardised reference computer — though the hardware need not be similar — and it copies the required installation files from the reference computer's hard drive to the target computer's hard drive. The hard drive does not need to be in the target computer and may be swapped out to it at any time, with hardware configuration still needing to be done later. The Winnt.exe program must also be passed a /unattend switch that points to a valid answer file and a /s file to point to the location of one or more valid installation sources.
Sysprep allows the duplication of a disk image on an existing Windows 2000 Server installation to multiple servers. This means that all applications and system configuration settings will be copied across to the new Windows 2000 installations, but it also means that the reference and target computers must have the same HALs,
ACPI support, and mass storage devices — though Windows 2000 automatically detects plug and play devices. The primary reason for using Sysprep is for deploying Windows 2000 to a site that has standard hardware and that needs a fast method of installing Windows 2000 to those computers. If a system has different HALs, mass storage devices or ACPI support, then multiple images would need to be maintained.
Systems Management Server can be used to upgrade system to Windows 2000 to multiple systems. Those operating systems that can be upgraded in this process must be running a version of Windows that can be upgraded (Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4, Windows 98 and Windows 95 OSR2.x) and those versions must be running the SMS client agent that can receive software installation operations. Using SMS allows installations to happen over a wide geographical area and provides centralised control over upgrades to systems.
Remote Installation Services (RIS) are a means to automatically install Windows 2000 Professional (and not Windows 2000 Server) to a local computer over a network from a central server. Images do not have to support specific hardware configurations and the security settings can be configured after the computer reboots as the service generates a new unique security ID (SID) for the machine. This is required so that local accounts are given the right identifier and do not clash with other Windows 2000 Professional computers on a network.
Mark Minasi. ''Installing Windows 2000 On Workstations with Remote Installation Services''.
RIS requires that client computers are able to boot over the network via either a
Network Interface Card that has a
Pre-Boot Execution Environment (PXE) boot
ROM installed or that it has a network card installed that is supported by the remote
Boot Disk generator. The remote computer must also meet the
Net PC specification. The server that RIS runs on must be Windows 2000 Server and the server must be able to access a network
DNS Service, a
DHCP service and the Active Directory services.
''Microsoft Press'' (2000). ''MCSE 70-210, Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional'', pages 543-551.
See Also: Studies related to Microsoft
In October 2002, Microsoft commissioned
IDC to determine the
Total Cost Of Ownership (TCO) for enterprise applications on Windows 2000 versus the TCO of
Linux on the same enterprise applications. IDC looked at security and other infrastructure tasks, and Web Serving. According to the report, Windows 2000 had a lower TCO for four infrastructure items and Linux had a lower TCO for web serving. IDC's report was based on telephone interviews of IT executives and managers of 104
North American companies in which they determined what they were using for a specific workload for file, print, security and networking services.
IDC determined that the four areas where Windows 2000 had a better TCO than Linux — over a period of five years for an average organization of 100 employees — were in the use of file, print, network infrastructure and security infrastructure. They determined, however, that Linux had a better TCO than Windows 2000 when it came to web serving. The report also found that the greatest cost was not in the procurement of software and hardware, but in staffing costs and downtime. The report did not take into consideration the impact of downtime to the profitability of the business (although they did apply a 40% productivity factor, in order to recognize that employees are not entirely unproductive during periods of IT infrastructure downtime) though it did find that Linux servers had less unplanned downtime than Windows 2000 Servers. They found that most Linux servers ran less workload per server than Windows 2000 servers and also found that none of the businesses they interviewed used 4-way SMP Linux computers. IDC also did not take into account specific application servers — servers that need low maintenance and are provided by a specific vendor — when they performed their study. The report did emphasise that TCO was only one factor in considering whether to use a particular IT platform, and also noted that as management and server software improved and became better packaged the overall picture that was being shown in their report could change.
"
Windows 2000 Versus Linux in Enterprise Computing ", ''IDC''.
- Bolosky, William J.; Corbin, Scott; Goebel, David; & Douceur, John R. " Single Instance Storage in Windows 2000 ". ''Microsoft Research'' & ''Balder Technology Group, Inc.'' (white paper).
- Bozman, Jean; Gillen, Al; Kolodgy, Charles; Kusnetzky, Dan; Perry, Randy; & Shiang, David (October 2002). " Windows 2000 Versus Linux in Enterprise Computing: An assessment of business value for selected workloads ". ''IDC'', sponsored by ''Microsoft Corporation''. White paper.
- Finnel, Lynn (2000). ''MCSE Exam 70-215, Microsoft Windows 2000 Server''. Microsoft Press . ISBN 1-57231-903-8.
- ''Microsoft''. Running Nonnative Applications in Windows 2000 Professional . Windows 2000 Resource Kit. Retrieved May 4 2005 .
- ''Microsoft''. " Active Directory Data Storage ". Retrieved May 9 2005 .
- Minasi, Mark (1993). ''Installing Windows 2000 of Mastering Windows 2000 Server''. Sybex . Chapter 3 — Installing Windows 2000 On Workstations with Remote Installation Services .
- Russinovich, Mark (October 1997). " Inside NT's Object Manager ". ''Windows IT Pro''.
- Russinovich, Mark (2002). " Inside Win2K NTFS, Part 1 ". ''Windows IT Pro'' (formerly ''Windows 2000 Magazine'').
- Saville, John ( January 9 2000 ). " What is Native Structure Storage? ". ''Windows IT Pro'' (formerly ''Windows 2000 Magazine'').
- Siyan, Kanajit S. (2000). "Windows 2000 Professional Reference". ''New Riders''. ISBN 0735709521.
- Salomon, David; & Russinovich, Mark E. (2000). '' Inside Microsoft Windows 2000 '' (Third Edition). ''Microsoft Press''. ISBN 0735610215.
- Trott, Bob ( October 27 1998 ). " It's official: NT 5.0 becomes Windows 2000 ". ''InfoWorld''.
- Wallace, Rick (2000). ''MCSE Exam 70-210, Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional''. Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-57231-901-1.
